Підручник зі спеціальності Англійська мова та література, Аналітичне читання художнього, газетного і наукового текстів
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МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ, МОЛОДІ ТА СПОРТУ УКРАЇНИДОНЕЦЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТФАКУЛЬТЕТ ІНОЗЕМНИХ МОВ
С. Т. Богатирьова, О. В. Трофімова, Ю. К. Островська, Є. С. Курдіна
Аналітичне читання художнього, газетного і наукового текстів
Підручникдля студентів старших курсівспеціальності «Англійська мова та література»
Рекомендовано Міністерством освіти і науки, молоді та спорту України
ВИДАВНИЦТВО ДОНЕЦЬКОГО НАЦІОНАЛЬНОГО УНІВЕРСИТЕТУ Донецьк 2011
УДК 8’42:811.111 (075) ББК Ш12=432.1*9я73 Рекомендовано Міністерством освіти і науки, молоді та спорту України (лист № 1/11-5099 від 23.06.11) Рецензенти: Левицький А. Е. – доктор філологічних наук, професор кафедри теорії та практики перекладу з англійської мови Інституту філології Київського національного університету імені Тараса Шевченка; Панасенко Н. І. – доктор філологічних наук, професор кафедри германської та фінської філології Київського національного лінгвістичного університету; Швачко С. О. – доктор філологічних наук, професор, завідувач кафедри теорії та практики перекладу Сумського державного університету.
Богатирьова С.Т., Трофімова О.В., Островська Ю.К., Курдіна Є.С. Аналітичне читання художнього, газетного і наукового текстів: Підручник з англійської мови для студентів старших курсів спеціальності «Англійська мова та література». – Донецьк: Видавництво Донецького національного університету, 2011. – 198 с. ISBN 978-966-639-474-6
Підручник з аналітичного читання для студентів старших курсів укладено відповідно до вимог Програми з англійської мови для університетів і інститутів (Curriculum for English Language Development in Universities and Institutes (2001)). Він призначений для аудиторної, самостійної та індивідуальної роботи студентів, які спеціалізуються в галузі іноземної філології та мають рівень С1-С2 за Шкалою оцінювання Ради Європи. Метою пропонованого видання є подальший розвиток навичок аналізу тексту на основі трьох функціональних стилів сучасної англійської мови – художнього, газетного та наукового – із використанням інтегрованого підходу, який поєднує лінгвістичний і текстлінгвістичний аналізи тексту як цілісного утворення.
УДК 8’42:811.111 (075) ББК Ш12=432.1*9я73 ISBN 978-966-639-474-6© Богатирьова С. Т., Трофімова О.В., Островська Ю.К.,Курдіна Є. С., 2011 ©Донецький національний університет, 2011
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ЗМІСТ ВСТУП.. 7 PART ONE BELLES-LETTRES FUNCTIONAL STYLE. 9 I. Introductory Notes. 9 1.1. Aims and purposes of the integrated approach to the belles-lettres text analysis. 9 1.2. General characteristics of some semantic and structural text categories. 10 1.3. An outline of a belles-lettres text analysis. 14 1.4. Speech patterns and clichés to be used in the course of a belles-lettres text analysis 15 Assignments for self-control 20 1.5. On the American Dead in Spain by Ernest Hemingway. 22 A sample of a belles-lettres text analysis. 24 Unit 1. At the Bay by Katherine Mansfield. 32 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 34 Section 2. Vocabulary focus. 35 Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories. 58 Unit 2. Martin Chuzzlewit by Charles Dickens 63 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 65 Section 2. vocabulary focus. 66 Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories. 89 PART TWO ENGLISH NEWSPAPER STYLE. 92 I. General Notes. 92 1.1. Formation of the British Press and the influence of its specific conditions on the newspaper English. 92 1.2. Main newspaper genres. 93 1.3. Quality and popular newspapers in the British Press. 94 1.4. An outline of the analysis of a newspaper writing. 96 Assignements for self-control 97 II. News reporting. 98 2.1. Demands and constrains of the newspaper English. 98 2.2. A kind of information conveyed. 99 2.3. The arrangement (layout) of the information conveyed. 99 2.4. Linguostylistic characteristics of a news report 100 2.5. Linguistic peculiarities of a headline. 104 III. A feature article. 107 3.1. General peculiarities of a feature article. 107 3.2. Linguostylistic peculiarities of a feature article. 108 Assignements for self-control 110 Unit 1. Blaze at charity bonfire damages warehouses. 112 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 113 Section 2. Analysis of Genre Peculiarities of a Newspaper Publication. 114 Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories. 116 Unit 2. Gang arrested over plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham.. 118 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 121 Section 2. Analysis of Genre Peculiarities of a Newspaper Publication. 121 Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories. 123 Unit 3. Blunkett Resigns over Visa for Nanny. 125 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 128 Section 2. Analysis of genre peculiarities of a newspaper publication. 129 Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories. 131 Unit 4. Linguistic Gaps in English Vocabulary. 133 Section 1. TEXT COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS. 135 Section 2. Analysis of genre peculiarities of a newspaper publication. 136 Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories. 137 Unit 5. Pacific Warming Kills Thousands of Mammal Pups 140 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 142 Section 2. Analysis of genre peculiarities of a newspaper publication. 143 Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories. 144 PART THREE SCIENTIFIC FUNCTIONAL STYLE. 146 I. General Notes. 146 1.2. Lexical peculiarities of a scientific text (ST). 147 Assignments for self-control 150 1.3. Morphological peculiarities of a scientific text. 151 1.4. Syntactic peculiarities of a scientific text. 152 1.5. Paralinguistic peculiarities of a scientific text. 154 1.6. References and foot-notes in a scientific text. 154 Assignments for self-control 155 1.7. The categories of informativity, presupposition and segmentability in a scientific text. 156 1.8. The rhetorical organization of a scientific text. 157 1.9. The category of cohesion in a scientific text. 159 Assignments for self-control 161 Unit 1. English Dialects. 162 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 166 Section 2. Vocabulary focus. 167 Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories. 173 Unit 2. Superluminous Laser Pulse in an Active Medium.. 176 Section 1. Text comprehension questions 178 Section 2. Vocabulary focus. 179 Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories. 183 SUPPLEMENT. 186 Text 1. LITTLE DORRIT. 186 ASSIGNMENTS. 188 Text 2. English will be spoken but not as the British know it 189 ASSIGNMENTS. 191 Text 3. Metabolites of Pseudomonasinvolved in the biocontrolof plant disease. 193 ASSIGNMENTS. 195 LIST OF LITERATURE. 197
ВСТУПКурс «Аналітичне читання» у межах дисципліни «Основна іноземна мова» для студентів з рівнем С1-С2 за Шкалою оцінювання Ради Європи спрямований як на опанування методикою й прийомами цілісного підходу до аналізу тексту, так і на оволодіння та удосконалення навичок застосування належної метамови аналізу. Відповідно до зазначених цілей підручник складається з трьох частин, які включають текстові матеріали художнього, газетного та наукового стилів й різноманітні завдання до них. Підручник містить вступні зауваження з теорії текстлінгвістичних категорій, а також короткий огляд історії становлення газетного стилю англійської мови, опис мовних особливостей двох основних жанрових різновидів газетного функціонального стилю (a news report та feature article), визначення екстралінгвістичних та мовних особливостей наукового стилю. Опрацювання художнього, газетного і наукового текстів забезпечується алгоритмом аналізу трьох зазначених різновидів сучасної англійської мови. Кожен текст супроводжується поясненнями фактів соціокультурної та історичної значущості, релевантних з точки зору категорій інформативності та пресупозиції. Надаються лексичні, стилістичні коментарі до текстів, питання на розуміння тексту, вправи на удосконалення лексичних навичок, що організовані за секціями Word-building, Polysemy, Synonyms, Phraseology, Usage, а також завдання, спрямовані на розвиток навичок аналізу текстів з точки зору таких текстлінгвістичних категорій, як інформативність, пресупозиція, імплікація, лексична когезія. Підручник має довідкову секцію зі списком мовленнєвих зразків і кліше, які подані з урахуванням послідовності етапів аналізу художнього тексту, при цьому більшість наданих кліше можуть бути використані у ході аналізу газетного та наукового текстів. Крім того, підручник включає зразок аналізу художнього тексту, що ілюструє основні етапи інтегрованого підходу до аналізу художнього тексту та забезпечує розуміння глибинної суті художнього твору. У додатку містяться тексти трьох функціональних стилів для самостійної роботи, націлені на удосконалення набутих навичок аналізу тексту. Автори підручника висловлюють щиру вдячність рецензентам рукопису підручника – доктору філологічних наук, професору кафедри теорії та практики перекладу з англійської мови Інституту філології Київського національного університету імені Тараса Шевченка А.Е. Левицькому, доктору філологічних наук, професору кафедри германської та фінської філології Київського національного лінгвістичного університету Н.І. Панасенко, доктору філологічних наук, професору, завідувачу кафедри теорії та практики перекладу Сумського державного університету С.О. Швачко за цінні зауваження та побажання.
PART ONE BELLES-LETTRES FUNCTIONAL STYLEI. Introductory Notes1.1. Aims and purposes of the integrated approach to the belles-lettres text analysisThe course of analytical reading for the 4th year university students majoring in the English language and literature aims at further developing the students’ skills of reading authentic belles-lettres texts, not only, and not merely as an aid in learning the language, but as works of verbal art whose poetic content and artistic linguostylistic peculiarities should be properly perceived and appreciated as something global, united by the author’s artistic message to the reader. Hence the necessity to embark on an integrated method of a belles-lettres text analysis which combines a traditional linguostylistic analysis, mainly focusing on the identification and description of linguostylistic concepts proper (individual stylistic devices and expressive means), on the one hand, and a complex wholistic approach to the text as an integral communicative unit and as an object of a separate branch of linguistics, generally known as textlinguistics, on the other. Textlinguistics requires a complex approach to the text as an object of its study, including its formal-semantic structure, its logico-conceptual unity and functional-communicative aspect of its nature. Since any text is a communicative unit, all its structural and semantic properties undergo the influence of the situation of communication. So, texts belonging to different functional styles and characterized by different functional-communicative aims have a particular structure and possess particular lingual features which can be subjected to textlinguistic analysis. The main aims of the analytical procedures in terms of textlinguistics are two-sided: 1. to master the techniques and methods of the analysis as such; 2. to acquire the adequate metalanguage of the analysis which comprises not only the necessary linguistic terminology, but also a certain amount of speech-patterns and word-combinations of a clichéd character, generally used in this field of speech communication.
1.2. General characteristics of some semantic and structural text categoriesDefining a text as an integral communicative unit it is necessary to point out that it is characterized by a number of specific text categories constituting it and thus inherent in it. There is no generally recognized nomenclature of text categories in linguistics. Their types and number vary. For example, two basic groups of text categories, namely, semantic and structural ones are distinguished in textlinguistics: 1) semantic categories: informativity, presupposition, depth, pragmatics, implication, integrity; 2) structural categories: segmentability, grammatical cohesion, prospectiveness, retrospectiveness, continuum. In fact, almost all text categories have a combined structural-semantic character, as they affect both the plane of expression and the plane of content. All text categories interact with one another, and the character of their interaction can have functional-stylistic significance, as it changes depending on a text type. I. The aim and purpose of any text is to create and pass on a certain amount of information, which finds its expression in the category of informativity, one of the most essential categories of a text. There are two types of information conveyed by the belles-lettres text – factual and conceptual ones. Factual information is explicitly presented in a text. It unfolds gradually and includes the description of facts, objects, phenomena, portraits of personages, landscapes, the development of events. It is a linear, surface information which has time and space duration. It makes up the theme of a text. Conceptual information, or the author’s artistic message, is a more complex type of information, as it is implicit and is deduced from the text as a whole. It makes up the idea of the text, and can be treated as a text deep message which must be understood and explicated by the reader. The conceptual information of the text, its message may correlate with its title. It may either fully correspond to it or oppose it, but in any case, the title of a text is closely associated with its conceptual information, or the author’s artistic message. Note: texts of newspaper, scientific and official document functional styles are mainly characterized by factual information. Conceptual information is an indispensable feature of any belles-lettres text and is elicited from it in different ways by different recipients, i.e. readers. II. In some texts the category of presupposition is clearly manifested. It is closely connected with the category of informativity, as the volume of the information conveyed by a text is extended by certain facts relevant in terms of the category of presupposition, and therefore they require a certain amount of background knowledge on the part of the reader. They include: 1. facts of general socio-historical and cultural significance, e.g. reference to certain historical events, facts from the cultural, economic, political life, national traditions and customs of the society described, famous figures etc. 2. allusions to works of world literature including the Bible, ancient mythology, and their characters. III. Another semantic category which is correlated with the conceptual information of the text is the category of depth. It forms the subtext of the text, and is typical of fictional texts only. IV. Informativity, presupposition and depth are closely associated with the category of implication which is created by various stylistic devices on the lexical, syntactical, phonetic levels. Implication widens the limits of the text, creates its depth, enhances its expressivity and enriches its conceptual information. To fully comprehend and appreciate a work of verbal art its conceptual information can be compressed into a certain number of conceptual cores within which tropes and other stylistic means serve as sygnals of the author’s artistic implications the sum total of which results in the author’s global artistic message to the reader. V. The category of pragmatics is the influence on the reader’s perception of the information conveyed, his/her emotions, feelings. This category reflects the author’s attitude towards the events described, his/her impact upon the readers, his/her intention to convince them. The author may influence his/her readers directly (by means of his/her direct address to the reader, digressions, meditations, direct characterization) or indirectly (with the help of different stylistic devices and expressive means). As a result, the author’s influence makes the reader accept his/her vision of life, and agree or disagree with it. VI. One of the most essential and universal categories of any text is its integrity, or unity which finds its expression on two different, though interconnected levels: formal-structural and semantic ones, the former correlated with the grammatical cohesion, the latter – with the lexical cohesion of the text. It is generally recognized that among various means of text cohesion it is lexical means of cohesion that play the most important role because they, first and foremost, contribute to the logico-semantic integrity of the text. The structural interrelation between different parts of the text (sentences, paragraphs, supraphrasal unities) is achieved due to various formal markers, referred to as grammatical means of cohesion: 1. various adverbial connectors including conjunctions, conjunctive words, parentheses; 2. personal and demonstrative pronouns referring to objects mentioned above; 3. various prop-words, which serve as means of secondary nomination of things, persons, facts, phenomena, already mentioned above; 4. the Definite Article before the noun already mentioned above; 5. the unity of tense-forms in different parts of a text etc. Lexical means of cohesion comprise: 1. the recurrence of key-words which reflect the most important content points of a text; 2. the use of words pertaining to certain lexico-semantic groups united by some common notions; 3. the use of words and word-combinations making up certain thematic groups on the basis of common underlying notions; 4. the use of words logically associated with the key-words; 5. the use of synonyms proper and contextual ones; 6. the use of antonyms, both antonyms proper and contextual ones; 7. the use of words built up by some common word-building elements (derivatives, compounds, conversion pairs etc.). Note: The lexical cohesion of a belles-lettres text is closely related to its integrity and can be expressed by stylistic means of cohesion, as any stylistic device, which is based on different types of repetition, may serve as a means of cohesion: 1. anaphora; 2. epiphora; 3. anadiplosis (catch repetition); 4. framing, or ring repetition; 5. parallelism; 6. antithesis; 7. tropes and other lexical stylistic devices and expressive means; 8. such phonetic stylistic devices, as alliteration and assonance. The integrity of a text is also achieved by: - the repetition of semes (the elementary lexical meanings): synonyms, antonyms, morphological derivatives, words with common emotional, evaluative or functional stylistic connotations; - the thematic repetition when images, symbols, themes, scenes are repeated in the text, thus, making it a connected whole; hence, the integrating images of the text. - means of foregrounding (фигуры выдвижения) which serve to attract the reader’s attention to the conceptually important pieces of information. Here belong: - the so-called ‘false anticipation’ i.e. the occurrence in the text of a unit which stands out against the background of homogeneity of the text or a part of it. A unit like this produces the effect of unexpectedness, and thus, attracts the reader’s attention. False anticipation is realized on any language level. On the lexical level it can be expressed by archaic words, borrowings, the author’s neologisms, words with specific connotations, words used in an unusual stylistic function, words belonging to different stylistic strata; - stylistic convergence (совмещение) – accumulation of different stylistic devices and expressive means in one small part of the text (a sentence or a paragraph) for the same stylistic purpose. VII. The category of continuum (непрерывность) is achieved through cohesion and integrity and the unity of place, time and events. Continuum does not admit of any interruptions. If the narration is interrupted by the author’s digressions or meditations we speak of discontinuum. Discontinuum is typical of fiction, written in the so-called ‘stream of consciousness’ method. VIII. The category of prospectiveness is created by forward (поступательный) and consecutive development of the information conveyed by the text without any retrospective digressions. If the author makes a step back in narration to supply the reader with all the foregoing facts and events which are necessary for understanding the events described in a text we speak of retrospectiveness.
1.3. An outline of a belles-lettres text analysisIn order to comprehend the global purport of a belles-lettres text and to assess its aesthetic impact upon the reader the integrated analysis of a belles-lettres text should be carried out in accordance with the following requirements: - present the text taking into account its genre, the type of narration, the place where the scene is laid, the time of an action, and the main characters; - formulate the main concern of the text and segment its factual information into logically connected/complete parts, briefly summarize each of them; - identify and comment on facts of socio-historic and/or philological character relevant in terms of the category of presupposition; - formulate the conceptual information of the text explicating the author’s artistic message; - compress the conceptual information into a certain number of conceptual cores embracing the most important points of the author’s artistic message; - identify the dominant stylistic devices in each conceptual core and comment on their stylistic implications; - comment on all other stylistically relevant language means and their stylistic functions; - pick out the main key-words and explain in what way their recurrence contribute to the logico-semantic and artistic integrity of the text; - analyse all other means of lexical cohesion of the text conducive to the semantic and artistic wholeness of the text; - compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the belles-lettres text under study.
1.4. Speech patterns and clichés to be used in the course of a belles-lettres text analysisI. The Presentation of a Text- The text under consideration / analysis / study / the present text is a piece of belles-lettres writing, namely, an extract from the novel / the short story under the title… by the English / American writer … - The text we are going to analyze is an extract from the novel / the short story by the English / American writer … entitled … II. The Category of Informativity- Analysing the text in terms of the category of informativity we must say that since the writing under analysis is a piece of belles-lettres style, both types of information can be elicited from it, namely, the factual and the conceptual ones. - Since we deal with a fictional writing, both types of information can be elicited from the present text in terms of the category of informativity, namely, the factual and the conceptual ones. - The text under discussion belongs to the belles-lettres style, so in terms of the category of informativity it is characterized by both, the factual and the conceptual information. - In terms of its factual information, the text can be segmented / divided into / falls into N logical / logically complete parts; - The factual information of the text can be segmented into… logical parts. Gist (Summary) of the Factual Information - The first logical part coinciding with the first physical paragraph… - The second / the third / the following / the ensuing / the final / the concluding logical part - comprising / consisting of / including / embracing / covering / uniting / holding together the 3d and the 4th physical paragraphs … - deals with the description of … / focuses on the description / depiction of … / provides the information about … / highlights smth. / concerns smth. / concerns itself with smth. / renders the talk between … / is devoted to … / depicts smth. / portrays smth. / smb. / casts light on smth. / looks closely at smth. - In the 1st logically complete part the author metaphorically portrays / depicts / turns to the description of … / introduces smb. / smth. / claims that… / brings forth the contrast between…/ points out that… / stresses that… / emphasizes that…/ further develops the idea of / particularizes smth. / goes in for a variety of details characterizing smth. /smb. / goes into the minutest details in respect of / with respect to smth. /smb. / makes a step back in the narration / passes over to the description / characterization of… / concludes this part by voicing his/her attitude to… / by painting a character’s portrait in full accord with his/her moral properties etc. III. The Category of Presupposition- The above / the above formulated factual information is extended by… / is complemented by a number of facts relevant in terms of the category of presupposition which require a certain amount of background knowledge on the part of the reader. - There are some facts in the text that are relevant in terms of the category of presupposition and broaden the volume of the factual information. - The factual information of the text is not confined to the facts described / summed up above. It is enriched by a certain amount of background information which comprises two different groups of facts: 1. facts of general socio-historical significance, usually references to some facts of historical, social, cultural, political, ideological, economic life of the society described, of some national customs and traditions etc.; 2. allusions to the works of world literature, including ancient mythology and the Bible and/or references to their characters (personages). - The reader is expected to be aware of these facts to fully comprehend, appreciate, evaluate and assess a work of verbal art, e.g. in the 2nd physical paragraph the author implicitly refers to the historical event which the reader is expected to know…; in the 9th physical paragraph another manifestation of the category of presupposition is observed, namely, the Biblical allusion to … IV. The Conceptual Information- Now that the factual information has been summarized, it should be pointed out that the category of informativity is not confined to this type of information only. It also comprises the conceptual information that is deduced from the text as a whole and makes up the author’s artistic message. - In my opinion / from my point of view / to my mind / as I see it the conceptual information of the present text is as follows / can be formulated in the following way … - Before we start analyzing the text in terms of the category of implication, I find it necessary to formulate the conceptual information of the text. V. The Category of Implication- The conceptual information of the present text can be compressed to / divided into … conceptual cores. / Some conceptual cores can be distinguished in the conceptual information. - Now let’s / I’d like to have a closer look at those SD which serve to convey the author’s implications within the first conceptual core. - Depicting the atmosphere / image of … the author makes use of / employs / resorts to the SD of … which consists in … - The author creates the image of … with the help of the SD of … - The author describes … using the SD of …, he likens sth. to sth. - The author intensifies / enhances / reinforces / develops / extends the idea of … with the help of the SD of … which consists in … - Another image portrayed / depicted within the conceptual core of … is - Passing on to the analysis of the second conceptual core in terms of the category of implication … - The conceptual core of …finds its expression in a number of artistic images which integrate the author’s message, namely: … - The author deliberately makes use of this SD to make the image more expressive, tangible / to give a greater expressive force to the utterance. - The image of … is enhanced / reinforced by the use of SD of … based upon … VI. The Category of Cohesion- Now let’s have a closer look at those means of the lexical cohesion which contribute to the logico-semantic and artistic wholeness of the text under analysis. - It is generally recognized that among various means of any text cohesion lexical means of cohesion play the crucial role because they, first and foremost, make for the logico-semantic globality of the text. - One of the means through which the lexical cohesion finds its expression in the text is the recurrence of the key-words. - In the present text the following key-words hold the logico-conceptual integrity of the text together, they are: … - Since the author depicts / shows / portrays / mentions sth., it is quite natural that … (some word) functions as the main / one more / can be regarded as the main key-word. - The lexical cohesion of the text finds its expression in … - One of the main means of the lexical cohesion is … - One more / another means of the lexical cohesion is … - Besides, the lexical cohesion of the text results from a wide / extensive use of sth; - The lexical cohesion of the text is also achieved / reinforced / enhanced / through sth; - The cohesive potential of the word … is supported / reinforced / enhanced by … - Apart from this, the cohesive potential / capacity of the key-word … is reinforced by the words and word-combinations logically associated with the idea of …; - Alongside this, the use of words belonging to the lexico-semantic groups of antonyms united by the notion of … and … also contributes to the lexical cohesion of the text; - A very important role in the lexical cohesion of the text is played by the synonyms proper and contextual synonyms. Among them: synonyms proper …; contextual synonyms …, which explicitly / implicitly pertain to the notion of …. - The cohesive power of the key-word … is not confined to the above said, because this word is logically associated with the words and word-combinations united by the notion of… thus forming the thematic group … - Though the key-word … is not very frequently repeated in the present text its cohesive power is enhanced by the contextual synonyms: … - Alongside this, in the text under analysis a number of antonyms to the key-word … are observed. The use of lexemes with the opposite meanings also makes for the logico-semantic unity of the text. - The key-word … is supported by a number of contextual synonyms which make for the wholeness and integrity (logico-semantic unity) of the text: … - The key-words enter a number of word-combinations which cover the text with a kind of thematic network. - The use of words pertaining to one and the same lexico-semantic group is another means of lexical cohesion which contributes to the logico-semantic unity of the text. - Since the conceptual core of … is distinguished in the present text it is only natural that there are words united by the common notion “…“ and belonging to the LSG “…”. So, they also contribute to the lexical cohesion of the present text. - Another means of the lexical cohesion within this text is the use of words and word-combinations referring to the same thematic group with the underlying notion of… - Now let’s have a closer look at those grammatical means of cohesion which ensure the formal integrity within the text. - To show / illustrate how the means of grammatical cohesion function / work in the text I have chosen the paragraph where they find their most vivid expression. - The conjunction … semantically relates to and grammatically connects this sentence with the previous one. - One more grammatical means of cohesion within this part of the text is … which correlates the whole sentence with … - The unity of the tense forms, namely, … makes for the expression of the author’s idea of … - The pronoun “…”, as well as other means of grammatical cohesion, functions as a means of secondary nomination, which is in its turn semantically related to and grammatically connected with … through another means of grammatical cohesion, namely … - This grammatical means of cohesion substitutes for its antecedent … Note: The majority of the above clichés, except those referring to point IV and V, can be used in the analysis of newspaper and scientific texts
Assignments for self-control1. What is the main aim of the analysis of a belles-lettres text at the advanced stage of the analytical reading course? 2. How does the integrated approach to the belles-lettres analysis differ from a traditional linguostylistic analysis? 3. What aspects of a text can be subjected to a complex textlinguistic analysis? 4. What basic text categories constitute a text as an integral communicative unit? 5. What is the difference between the factual and the conceptual information within the category of informativity? 6. What texts are characterized by the factual information only? 7. What facts relevant in terms of the category of presupposition serve to enlarge the volume of the information conveyed? 8. What is the category of implication constituted by and which type of information is it directly correlated with? 9. What means of text cohesion, first and foremost contribute to the logico-semantic integrity of a text? 10. What are the most important means of the lexical cohesion of a text?
1.5. On the American Dead in Spain by Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961)One of the greatest and most influential modern American writers, Ernest Hemingway, known as the most humane writers of his time, Hemingway hated war and detested fascism in all of its forms. When the Civil War in Spain launched by the coalition of pro-fascist generals against the Spanish Republic broke out, Hemingway immediately sided with the republicans. The selection suggested for discussion is the writer's tribute to the Americans who died defending the cause of the Spanish Revolution. It was published in the progressive American magazine The New Masses in February 1939, shortly before the fall of the Spanish Republic. Though sometimes included in his collections of short stories, it might be rather called an epitaph, a special piece of writing epitomizing and commemorating the deceased, rhythmically arranged as a dead march. *** The dead sleep cold in Spain tonight. 1) Snow blows through the olive groves, sifting against the tree roots. Snow drifts over the mounds with the small headboards.* (When there was time for headboards.) The olive trees are thin in the cold wind because their lower branches were once cut to cover tanks, and the dead sleep cold in the small hills over the Jarama River. It was cold that February when they died there and since then the dead have not noticed the changes of the seasons. It is two years now since the Lincoln Battalion 2) held for four and a half months along the heights of the Jarama, and the first American dead have been a part of the earth of Spain for a long time now. The dead sleep cold in Spain tonight and they will sleep cold all this winter as the earth sleeps with them. But in the spring the rain will come to make the earth kind again. The wind will blow soft over the hills from the south. The black trees will come to life with small green leaves, and there will be blossoms on the apple-trees along the Jarama River. This spring the dead will feel the earth beginning to live again. For our dead are a part of the earth of Spain now and the earth of Spain can never die. Each winter it will seem to die and each spring it will come alive again. Our dead will live with it forever. Just as the earth can never die, neither will those who have ever been free return to slavery. The peasants who work the earth where our dead lie know what these dead died for. There was time during the war for them to learn these things, and there is forever for them to remember them in.3) Our dead live in the hearts and the minds of the Spanish workers, of all the good simple honest people who believed in and fought for the Spanish republic. And as long as all our dead live in the Spanish earth, and they will live as long as the earth lives, no system of tyranny ever will prevail in Spain. The fascists may spread over the land, blasting their way with weight of metal brought from other countries.4) They may advance aided by traitors and cowards. They may destroy cities and villages and try to hold the people in slavery. But you cannot hold any people in slavery. The Spanish people will rise again as they have always risen before against tyranny. The dead do not need to rise. They are a part of the earth now and the earth can never be conquered. For the earth endureth forever.5) It will outlive all systems of tyranny. Those who have entered it honorably, and no men ever entered earth more honorably than those who died in Spain, already have achieved immortality. * headboard (here) — a small board on the grave with the name of the buried soldier
Explanatory Notes 1. The dead sleep cold in Spain tonightSleep cold is a double predicate, which is a kind of fusion of a simple verbal and a compound nominal predicate. The adjective cold serving as a predicative is related to the subject. This adjective, however, is associated with other words of the passage bearing the notion of cold and death. One must also bear in mind that the use of adjectives with Hemingway is of particular importance. Generally he uses them sparingly, though when he does use them, they are mostly short one- syllable words carrying factual objective information or implicative value. 2. the Lincoln BattalionThe Lincoln Battalion formed part of an international brigade. American volunteers had secretly left for Spain, since the U. S. A. declared neutrality, thus refusing to help the Spanish republic. Betrayed by pro-fascist generals, the republic was actually left without its regular army. It was then that the volunteers from 54 countries rushed to Spain, organizing international brigades. 3. there is forever for them to remember them in. The adverb forever is used here in a noun position. Opposed to passing time, it may be understood as a synonym for eternity, a word belonging to elevated vocabulary. Besides the word forever enters a set of repeated key-words of the text. 4. The fascists may spread over the land, blasting their way with weight of metal brought from other countries. The sentence alludes to the fact that the Spanish fascists acted in alliance with the already established fascist dictatorships of Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy, who supplied them with arms. The neutrality of the U. S. A., Britain and France strengthened the fascist force. 5. For the earth endureth forever. The sentence contains a biblical allusion. It is a modification of a line from Ecclesiastes (a book of the Old Testament traditionally attributed to king Solomon): "One generation passeth away, another generation cometh, but the earth abideth for ever." The allusion enhances the symbolic meaning of the image of the earth as of everlasting life. The use of the verb endure instead of the obsolete abide makes the image more vivid, whereas the retainment of the archaic and poetic form -th for -s adds to the solemnity and forcefulness of expression.
A sample of a belles-lettres text analysisI. The text under analysis is a piece of belles-lettres writing by one of the greatest American writers E. Hemingway under the title “On the American Dead in Spain”. It presents a certain interest in terms of its genre, as though written in a prosaic form, it can be treated as a lyrical writing, a blank verse, owing to its compressed form, strongly marked repetitive rhythms resulting from the use of deliberately reiterated key-words, which acquires the character of a refrain, the abundance of expressive means and stylistic devices. All this makes it possible to consider this writing to be an epitaph, rhythmically arranged as a dead march, epitomizing and commemorating the American soldiers who died defending the cause of the Spanish Revolution during the Civil War in Spain. II. Analyzing the text in terms of the category of informativity we must say that like in any belles-lettres writing, both types of information can be elicited from it, namely, the factual and the conceptual ones. The main concern of the text in question is the depiction of the exploit of the American volunteers from the international brigade, namely, from the Lincoln Battalion, who gave their lives for the ideas of the Spanish Republic in the struggle against the Spanish fascism under General Franco in 1939 during the Civil War in Spain. The factual information of the text under consideration can be segmented into five logically complete parts. In the 1st logical part consisting of the 1st and 2nd physical paragraphs the author metaphorically depicts the place where the American soldiers who gave their lives for the cause of the Spanish Revolution are buried. This logical part also comprises the retrospective information concerning the place where the severe battles took place, namely, the heights of the Jarama river and the time for which the battle lasted, namely, four and a half months. The author provides some poetic details referring to the events that took place along the heights the Jarama river: the winter landscape, the cut branches of the trees, the headboards on the graves of the deceased. Ernest Hemingway compares the death of the American soldiers with a long winter sleep. The 2nd logical part embracing the 3rd and the 4th physical paragraphs concerns itself with the picturesque and highly-poetic depiction of the eternal life of the Spanish Earth which comes to life every spring together with the memory of the American heroes who had become part of it. It’s done through the metaphoric image of the annual resurrection of nature. The 3rd logical part holding together the 5th and the 6th physical paragraphs develops the idea of the immortality of the American volunteers and conveys the author’s conviction that the memory of these soldiers will live forever in the hearts and minds of the good simple honest people of Spain. The author also praises the freedom-like character of the Spanish people who will never live in slavery. The 4th logical part including the 7th and the 8th physical paragraphs deals with the skillful denunciation of the destructive, brutal force of fascism. Hemingway also exposes those countries who aided Spanish fascists by supplying them with arms and weapons. The concluding logical part comprising the 9th and the 10th physical paragraphs presents the author’s solemn assertion that the Spanish Earth can never be conquered and will outlive all systems of tyranny and the American soldiers who entered this earth honourably have already achieved immortality. III. The above factual information is not confined to the above said. Its volume is enlarged by a number of facts relevant in terms of the category of presupposition which require a certain amount of background knowledge on the part of the reader. Thus, mentioning the small headboards on the graves of the deceased the author expects the reader to be aware of the fact that the battles that took place in Spain during the Civil War between Republicans and Francists were so severe and cruel that there was no time to install gravestones. Another fact relevant in terms of the category of presupposition is the Lincoln Battalion which is mentioned in the second paragraph. The reader is expected to know that it formed a part of the international brigades organized by the volunteers from 54 countries who rushed to Spain after pro-fascist generals betrayed the Republic leaving it without its regular army. The Lincoln Battalion consisted of American volunteers who secretly left for Spain since the USA declared neutrality. One more important fact is that the neutrality of the USA and some other countries strengthened the fascist force. Another fact essential in terms of the category of presupposition is found in the 7th paragraph and requires from the reader the knowledge that the Spanish fascists acted in the alliance with the already established fascist dictatorships of Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy, who supplied the Spanish nationalists with arms and weapons. Apart from the above mentioned information of general socio-historic significance, there are some philological facts. Thus, the reader is expected to have some knowledge of the Bible to identify and comprehend the allusion used in the 9th paragraph “For the earth endureth forever” which is a modification of a line from Ecclesiastes, a book of the Old Testament traditionally attributed to King Solomon: “One generation passeth away, another generation cometh, but the earth abideth forever”. The use of the verb “endure” instead of the obsolete “abide” makes the image more vivid, whereas the retainment of the archaic and poetic form –th for –s adds to the solemnity and forcefulness of expression. IV. Before we start analyzing the text in terms of the category of implication we should formulate the conceptual information which I see as follows. In a form of an epitaph the author immortalizes the exploit of the American volunteers who died for the freedom of the Spanish people during the Civil War in Spain. Besides, Hemingway stigmatizes fascism as one of the most cruel manifestations of tyranny. The author also glorifies the invincible spirit of the Spanish people who will never live in slavery. The above mentioned conceptual information can be split up into 3 conceptual cores. The first conceptual core to distinguish is the eternal life of the Spanish earth which awakens every spring from its long winter sleep. To convey this idea the author makes use of the SD of personification in a number of cases where the earth, trees and rain are endowed with such human features as the ability to come, to sleep, to come alive, to come to life, etc. To develop the idea of the eternal life of the Spanish earth the author resorts to the SD of parallel syntactic parallelism based on the similar pattern “N+Verb (in the Future Indefinite)” in a number of consecutive sentences in the second logical part. The same idea is extended by the use of the SD of alliteration consisting in the repetition of the sonorant sounds [m], [l], [n] which resemble spring sounds. The idea of the everlasting life of the Spanish earth that will outlive all the systems of tyranny is expressed through the SD of Biblical allusion “for the earth endureth forever” which is a modification of a line from Ecclesiastes, a book of the Old Testament attributed to King Solomon: “the earth abideth for ever”. The second conceptual core concerns itself with the idea that those who perished for the just cause of liberty are immortal as they became a part of the Spanish earth and the earth endureth forever. To substantiate the idea of the heroic exploit of the American volunteers, the author employs the SD of a trite metaphor “the dead sleep cold” and “live in hearts and minds”, which serve as certain expressive intensifiers of the idea. The use of the SD of oxymoron “the dead will live” and “the dead will feel” plays a great role in expressing the idea of the immortality of those who entered the earth honourably. To enhance the idea of the everlasting life of the American heroes, the author resorts to the use of the SD of periphrasis “to be a part of the earth” and “to enter the earth”, which is based on the metaphoric roundabout form of denoting the idea of death. The 3rd conceptual core comprises the images which are concerned with denunciation of tyranny, in general, and fascism, in particular. Depicting the atmosphere / image of the cold sleep of the American soldiers in the Spanish earth the author makes use of the phonetic SD of alliteration which consists in the repetition of the consonants [s] and [z] at the beginning of the neighbouring words (in a very close succession). These sounds symbolize the sinister silence on the place of the battle: “snow blows, snow drifts”. Developing the idea of the destructiveness of war the author resorts to the SD of expressive-evaluative epithet “thin” in reference to the noun “branches” stressing that not only human beings but objects of nature also suffer from war. To embody the idea of the destructive force of fascism the author makes use of the skillfully managed SD of dead metaphor “to blast one’s way” which functions as an intensifier and is based on the analogy between removing some obstacles on one’s way and the devastation that the war brings about. To convey the idea of the cruelty and brutality of the fascist regime the author resorts to the SD of synechdoche “weight of metal” which stands for “arms and weapons”. It’s based on a specific kind of metonymic relationship the whole “metal” is used for a part “weapons”. In the seventh paragraph a SD of parallelism is observed, which is based on the similarity of sentence pattern of the adjacent phrases or sentences, namely S + Modal Verbal Predicate (may + infinitive): e.g. “the fascists may spread, …” It is done for a rhetorical reason. This parallel construction is accompanied by the change of the modal verb in the negative form in the same pattern. Hemingway changes the verb “may” into “cannot” to make his rejection of fascism all the sharper. Making use of the words “traitors” and “cowards” the author alludes to the countries which supplied the Spanish profascist generals with arms and to the countries which declared neutrality and in this way strengthened the fascist force. We can also trace the use of the SD of climax in the 7th paragraph which is based on the recurrence of the syntactic pattern “they+comp. nomin. pred.” and in each recurrent sequence the lexical unit is emotionally stronger. This SD contributes to the idea that tyranny is doomed to failure, it can’t last forever. V. Now let’s have a closer look at those means of the lexical cohesion which contribute to the logical-semantic wholeness of the text. It is generally recognized that among various means of text cohesion lexical means of cohesion play the crucial role because, first and foremost, they make for the logico-semantic globality of the text. One of the means through which the lexical cohesion finds its expression is the recurrence of the key-words. In the present text the following key-words support the logico-conceptual integrity of the text: “the dead”, “the Earth”, “to live”. Since the epitaph under discussion is written in memory of the American soldiers who died during the Civil War in Spain, it is only natural that this part of the information of the text is expressed by the recurrent use of the substantivized adjective “the dead”, repeated 16 times. But on the other hand, Hemingway claims that the American soldiers who died in the Civil War in Spain have already achieved immortality as they became a part of the Spanish earth which is eternal. This accounts for the recurrence of the key-words “the earth” (13 times) and “to live”. Though the key-word “to live” is not very frequently repeated in the present text its cohesive capacity is enhanced by the contextual synonyms: to come to life; to come alive; to outlive; to achieve immortality; to endure. Alongside this, a number of antonyms to the key-word “to live” are observed. The use of lexemes with opposite meanings also reinforces the logico-semantic unity of the text: to die; to enter the earth; to sleep cold; to be a part of the earth. The key-word “the dead” is supported by a number of contextual synonyms which makes for the integrity of the text: “those who have entered the earth honourably”; “those who died in Spain”; “a part of the earth of Spain”; the Lincoln Battalion”. The key-words enter a number of word-combinations which cover the text with a kind of a thematic network: “the dead”: - “the first American dead”; “our dead”; “these dead”; “the earth”: - the earth sleeps; the earth of Spain; the earth endureth; the earth lives; to enter the earth; to work the earth; to make the earth kind again; to feel the earth beginning to live; “to live”: - to live again; to live in the Spanish earth; to live forever; to live as long as the earth lives; the earth lives; our dead live. The use of words pertaining to one and the same lexico-semantic group is another means of lexical cohesion which contributes to the logico-semantic unity of the text. Since we can distinguish the conceptual cores of “life” and “death” in the present text it is only natural that these two notions will unite words into two different LSG (lexico-semantic groups) with the common underlying notions: the notion of death: - Nouns: the dead, snow, winter, mounds, headboards, tanks, war, slavery, tyranny, fascists, traitors, cowards, metal. - Verbs: to sleep, to cut, to die, to blast, to fight, to destroy. - Adjectives: cold, thin, black. the notion of life: - Nouns: spring, earth, rain, life, (green) leaves, blossoms, immortality, hearts, (soft) wind, apple-trees. - Verbs: to live, to outlive, to endure, to believe, to remember, to feel, to begin. - Adjectives: kind, soft, alive, free, good, honest. - Adverbs: honourably, forever, again. Another means of the lexical cohesion is the use of words and word-combinations referring to the same thematic group with the underlying notion of life and death. The thematic group with the underlying notion of death includes the word-combinations: to sleep cold, snow blows, snow drifts, sifts, to blast one’s way with weight of metal, to hold people in slavery, system of tyranny, to return to slavery. The thematic group with the underlying notion of life comprises the word-combinations: to make the earth kind again, to blow soft, to come to life, small green leaves, to come alive again, our dead live in the hearts and the minds of the Spanish workers, to rise against tyranny, to outlive all systems of tyranny, to achieve immortality, to endure forever. The associative-semantic use of the word “the dead” which first serves to denote “the killed in Spain, the perished, the fallen”, then gradually obtains new meanings: “all honest, brave people; those who had risen against slavery”. And finally, at the end of the text it comes to denote “the heroes; ones living forever; people who became immortal”. Thus, the initial meaning of the word “the dead” changes completely to the end of the text. In other words, the word “dead” undergoes the so-called semantic shift. It also makes for the integrity of the text. The use of words having the same root morpheme formed by different word-building means also contributes to the lexical cohesion of the text: e.g. to die – dead – death; to love – love; to live – outlive – life.
Unit 1. At the Bay by Katherine MansfieldKatherine Mansfield (1888 – 1923) Katherine Mansfield – a talented English authoress – is famous for her short stories. Her works are marked by a deep psychological insight, a warm sympathy for the common man. Her style is terse and lucid. She excels both in character drawing and the portrayal of nature. The British critics call Mansfield the English Tchekhov in Western literature. The extract below is the beginning of a story dealing with the description of life at a sea-resort in New Zealand. The description is remarkable for the subtleness of the author’s feeling of nature and keenness of observation. *** Very early morning. The sun was not yet risen, and the whole of CrescentBay1) was hidden under a white sea-mist. The big bush-covered hills at the back were smothered. You could not see where they ended and the paddocks and bungalows began. The sandy road was gone and the paddocks and bungalows began the other side of it; there were no white dunes covered with reddish grass beyond them; there was nothing to mark which was beach and where was the sea. A heavy dew had fallen. The grass was blue. Big drops hung on the bushes and just did not fall; the silvery, fluffy toi-toi 2) was limp on its long stalks, and all the marigolds 3) and the pinks in the bungalow gardens were bowed to the earth with wetness. Drenched were the cold fuchsias, round pearls of dew lay on the flat nasturtium leaves. It looked as though the sea had beaten up softly in the darkness, as though one immense wave had come rippling – how far? Perhaps if you had waked up in the middle of the night you might have seen a big fish flicking in the window and gone again… Ah-Aah! sounded the sleepy sea. And from the bush there came the sounds of little streams flowing, quickly, lightly, slipping between the smooth stones, gushing into ferny basins and out again; and there was the splashing of big drops on large leaves, and something else – what was it? – a faint stirring and shaking, the snapping of a twig and then such silence that it seemed some one was listening. Round the соrner of CrescentBay, between the piled-up masses of broken rock, а flock of sheep саmе раttеring. Тhеу were huddled together, а small, tossing, woolly mass, and their thin, stick-like legs trotted along quickly as if the cold and the quiet had frightened them. Behind them an old sheep-dog, his soaking paws covered with sand, ran along with his nose to the ground, but carelessly, as if thinking of something else. And then in the rocky gateway the shepherd appeared. He was a lean, upright old man, in a frieze coat that was covered with a web of tiny drops, velvet trousers tied under the knee, and а wide-awake with a folded blue handkerchief round the brim. One hand was сrаmmеd into his belt, the other grasped а beautifully smooth yellow stick. And as he walked, taking his time, he kept up а very soft light whistling, an airy, far-away fluting that sounded mournful and tender. The old dog cut an ancient caper or two and then drew up sharp, ashamed of his levity, and walked а few dignified paces by his master’s side. The sheep ran forward in little pattering rushes; they began to bleat, and ghostly flосks and herds answered them from the sea: “Ваa! Baаа!” For а time they seemed to be always on the same piece of ground. There ahead was stretched the sandy road with shallow puddles; the same soaky bushes showed on either side and the same shadowy palings. Then something immense came into view; an еnоrmоus shock-haired giant with his arms stretched out. It was the big gum-trее outside Mrs. Stubbs's 4) shop, and as thеу passed by there was а strong whiff of eucalyptus. And now big spots of light gleamed in the mist. The shepherd stopped whistling; he rubbed his red nose and wet beard on his wet sleeve and, screwing up his eyes, glanced in the direction of the sea. The sun was rising. It was marvelous how quickly the mist thinned, sped away, dissolved from the shallow plain, rolled up from the bush and was gone as if in а hurry to escape; big twists and curls jostled and shouldered each other as the silvery beams brоаdеnеd. The fаr-аwау sky – а bright, pure blue was reflected in the puddles, and the drops, swimming along the tеlеgrарh poles, flashed into points of light. Now the leaping, glittering sea was so bright it made one's eyes асhе to look at it. ¨Explanatory Notes 1) Crescent Bay – a sea resort in New Zealand. 2) toi-toi – an exotic flower, native of New Zealand. 3) marigolds, fuchsias – flowers, being all of them of red colour and its different shades. 4) Mrs. Stubbs – the mistress of a shop.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1.1. Issues for Discussion1. Characterize the text under study from the point of view of its form. Is it a description of a scene, an account of some event, a portrayal of some individuals etc.? 2. State where the scene is laid. Are there any indications of time and place of the action in the extract? 3. What is the general impression of Crescent Bay in the predawn hours as described in the first two physical paragraphs? 4. What elements of nature form the details of the landscape in these paragraphs? 5. How is the atmosphere of the early foggy morning pictured? 6. Comment on the way in which the stillness of that early hour is emphasized. At what expense is the effect of calmness and serenity achieved? 7. What are the main features of the author’s artistic method in depicting the sea? What are the predominant stylistic devices and the prevalent mood of the sea description? 8. Through what artistic means is the effect of heavy dew described? Is the impression of wetness sustained throughout the narration? How does its verbal manifestation diversify? 9. Comment on the use of interjections and their stylistic potential in depicting the nature. 10. What is the role of the rhetorical questions “how far”? and “what was it?” in the 1st and in the 2nd physical paragraphs? Is the reader expected to find an answer to them or do they serve to enhance the lyrical mood permeating the description? 11. How does the general atmosphere of the scene described change in the 3rd physical paragraph? What lexical means make for enlivening the dreamy scene depicted in the first two physical paragraphs? 12. Comment on the way the flock of sheep moves focussing on the verbs of motion. 13. How is the humorous effect in the description of the dog achieved 14. Do you find the portrayal of the animals in the passage symbolic? 15. Is the character drawing of the shepherd direct? What poetic details does it comprise (appearance, clothes, behaviour etc.)? 16. Find the words thematically united by the common notion of: - water - moisture - movement - different light effects - sounds - plants - shades of colour - clothes 17. Find the sentence in the 3rd physical paragraph which seems to divide the paragraph into two parts. What underlies this division? 18. What poetic details are employed in picturing the glory of the rising sun? 19. Find instances of the author’s feeling of sincere admiration for the break of the day. 20. How does the author project herself into the description? How are her remarkable feeling of nature and keenness of observation expressed in the extract? Find such instances in the first and in the concluding logical parts.
Section 2. Vocabulary focusG2.1. Essential Vocabulary bright, a. 1. shining, sparking, full of light (as the bright sun, light, a bright room) ‘яскравий, сліпучий, ясний’. e. g. 1) For nearly ten minutes he stood there, motionless, with parted lips and eyes strongly bright. (O. Wilde) 2) There was plenty to do during the fresh bright days after the rains. (Prichard) 2. of a merry colour, brilliant ‘яскравий’. e. g. The girl wore a bright summer dress. (Len Doherty) 3. witty, clever; lively, cheerful ‘дотепний,розумний; пожвавлений, веселий’. e. g. But you, Dorian, with your pure, bright, innocent face… - I can’t believe anything against you. (O. Wilde) Ant.dull. brightly, adv. in a bright way ‘яскраво; ясно; дотепно; жваво’. e. g. She kissed away George to school in the morning smiling brightly after him. (Thackeray) brighten, v. t. & i. to grow or to make bright, to clear up ‘проясняти(ся),кращати’. e. g. 1) Septimus’s face brightened: “This,” said he “is quite a different thing.” 2) … as the day brightened and the room filled with sunlight he became more and more restlessly wakeful. (Carter) brightness, n. brilliance ‘яскравість, блиск’. e. g. She has the mechanical brightness of a woman who is desperately hanging onto the remains of her youth. (Maugham) darkness, n. see dark, n. dark, a. 1. without light ‘темний’. e. g. Through a dark apartment… Malone followed the speaker into a light and bright room within. (Ch. Bronte)
2. brown (about a complexion, hair) ‘смуглявий; темноволосий’. е. g. Maggie, was incessantly tossing her head to keep the dark heavy locks out of her glеаming blасk eyes. (G. Eliot) 3. obscure; secret ‘незрозумілий; таємничий, таємний’. е. g. Тhе future - according to Annette - was dark.(Galsworthy) Phr. to keep something dark - to keep secret. 4. ignorant, illiterate ‘некультурний, неосвічений’. е. g. If уоu орроsе his principles... hе supposes that уоu are quite dark. dark, n. 1. absence of light ‘темрява’. е. g; Impossilble... to forget her body сrumрlеd and crushed into the sofa in the dark that night when he came back from Robin Нill and broke the news to her.(Galsworthy) 2. ignorance (onlу in phr.: in the dark; to keep soтebody in the dark) ‘необізнаність’. е. g. What was this? Had she bееn kept in the dark? (Galsworthy) darken, v. t. & i. (Lit. and fig.) tо make dark; to become dark ‘затемнювати; темніти; замучуватися’. е. g. 1) As the fine autumn darkened into winter she complained of the соld. (Maughamт) 2) Тhе next few days were darkened bу overwhelming anxieties... darkness, n. absеnсе of light ‘темрява’. е. g. In a few minutes the sailor came back with something in his hands which Arthur could not distinctly see for the darkness. (Voynich) faint, а. 1. weak, lacking strength ‘слабкий’. е. g. A faint wind саmе dipping over the fields... (Len Doherty) Phr. to feel faint – to feel giddy. 2. not bright or vivid in colour ‘блідий, тьмяний’. e. g. When hе сaught sight of Lord Henry, a faint blush coloured his cheeks for а moment and he started back. (O. Wilde) faint, v. i. to lose consciousness слабеть, падать в обморок. e. g. I felt it would be degrading to faint with hunger on the causeway of a hamlet. (Ch. Bronte) faint, n. a sudden loss of consciousness, swoon ‘непритомність, зомління’. e. g. The night found me still where he had laid me during my faint. (Stevenson) faintness, n. weakness, feebleness ‘слабкість; нудота’. е. g. She entertained а wild, idea of explaining to him that аn attack of feebleness... had overpowered her just before the moon саmе uр. (J.London) fall, v. i. 1. tо drop down fгоm ‘падати’. е. g. l) Маbеl’s legs gave way and she fеll backward. (Abrahams) 2) Тhе following day, аs the twilight was fаllig, Vincent stood at the windоw overlooking the yard. (Stone) 2. tо yield to a temptation ‘опуститися, впадати в гріх’. е. g.... if shе was going to fаll like the others, he wouldn't have it on his conscience that she felI through his doing. (J. Lindsay) fall, n. 1. the act of fаllig in аnу of its senses (аs, the fall of leaves, the fall of the Cabinet) ‘падіння’. е. g. Не felt the shock of his fall the more, after the few paces he had made. (Bulwer) 2. descent of water (often in the plural) (as the Niagara Falls) ‘водоспад’. е. g. Night саmе on, а beautiful night of moonlight, and I lingered bу the falls until past еlеvеn. (J. London) 3. autumn (Ат.) ‘осінь’. е. g. And sо the summer and fall passed and winter саmе again. (Stone) ground, n. 1. thе earth or sоil, the land ‘земля, ґрунт; місцевість’. е. g. Тhеу had to …search in the grass, straining their еуеs and fumbling over the ground with anxious fingers. (Len Doherty) Phr. to break (fresh or new) ground–to plough uр virgin soils; to take ground – to land. 2. cаusе or reason ‘підстава, мотив’. е. g. “How саn I divorce уou?” – “I thought my confession would give уоu grounds for that.” (Т. Hardy) Phr. forbidden ground – а toрic not to bе discussed; to find common ground – to find common language; to stand one's ground – to stand firm. ground floor, n. thе flооr of a house оn а level with the street ‘ніжній поверх’. е. g.... Оn thе ground flооr he had а store where hе sold canned goods.. (Maugham). lеаn, а. thin, not fat (аs, а lеап тап, person, lеап meat) ‘худий, чахлий’. е. g. The fellow was аs lean аs а rail. (Galsworthy) lean, v. t. & i. tо incline or bend (forward, over); to rest (against, оn) ‘нахиляти(ся), притуляти(ся)’. е. g. А group of men, who had obviously bееn strikers, stood leaning against the parapet. (Galsworthy) marvel, n. a wonder or wonderful thing ‘чудова річ; чудо, диво’. е. g. That mоnеу was advanced bу Mr. Mont. Isn’t it а marvel? (Galsworthy) Syn. wonder, marvel, miracle.
marvel, v. i. to wonder, to feel astonishment ‘дивуватися, захоплюватися’. е. g. Martin was marvelling at the knowledge that was stowed away in that pretty head of hers. (J. Loпdoп) marvellous, а. astonishing, wonderful ‘чудовий, дивовижний’. е. g. She had had а marvellous time down south, this summer, Laura said. (Prichard) quickly see quick quick, а. 1. rapid, brisk, hasty (аs, а quick step, тоvетепt) ‘швидкий, прудкий, жвавий’. е. g. “How quick your, servants are!” Miss Quested exclaimed. For а cloth had already bееn lаid... (Forster) Phr. quick to sympathize – responsive, symраthеtic, аblе to feel sympathy with or for а person; quick to take оffenсе – touchy, еаsilу offended. Syn. quick, prompt, swift.
2. prompt in action or thought, having presence of mind, sharp (as а qиick child, а qиick wit) ‘кмітливий, тямущий; винахідливий’. е. g.... it's your quick head that's wanted, and your way with men.(Galsworthy) quick, n. sensitive, living fresh (used only in the рhr.: to the quick) ‘живе м'ясо, чутливе місце’. е. g. She had bееn hurt to the quick, and her sensitive nature was quivering with the shame of it. (J. Loпdoп) quicken, v. t. & i. tо make quick or rapid; to move faster (as, he qиickeпed his расе, his pulse quickened) ‘прискорювати(ся)’. е. g..., slowly, in small groups, they drifted off quickening step when there was a decent distance between themselves and Harris. (Leп Doherty) quick, quickly, adv. soon, swiftly ‘швидко’. е. g. She bent down, picked uр а sharp stone and flung it quickly at him. (Maиghaт) quickness, n. speed ‘швидкість’. е. g. “Yes,” murmured Winifred –not very quick, because in her уоuth quiсknеss hаd not bееn fashionable. (Galsworthy). red, а. 1. ‘червоний’. e. g. It was а town of red brick, оr of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it… (Dickeпs) 2. flushed (about а face) ‘рум’яний’: е. g. When Smither – very red – had withdrawn, Soames did not know how to begin... (Galsworthy) 3. thе colour of the hair ‘рудий’. е. g. …he had very red hair…and the red freckled skin which accompanies red hair. (Maughaт) red, n. one of the colours ‘червоний колір’. е. g. No longer Autumn's glowing red I upon our Forest hill is shed. (Scott) Рhr. to see red – to bесоmе furious. redden, v. t. & i. tо make red; to bесоmе red, to blush ‘забарвлювати в червоний колір; червоніти’. е. g. She reddened and said... “I have а great admiration for Вуron” (G. Eliot) reddish, а. tinged with red ‘червонуватий, рудуватий’. е. g. 1) А reddish fitful light was coming from а window аbоvе. (Galsworthy) 2) His reddish hair covered his face. (Stoпe) red-handed, а. having hands red with (mostly used fig. in the phr.: to bе caught red-haпded ‘бути спійманим на місці злочину’). e. g. Another роlitiсiаn had оnсе said... that hе would not stop short of murder, but that one would never catch him red-handed... (Dreiser) rise, v. i. 1. to get uр, to mоvе upwаrd ‘підніматися, вставати, сходити, здійматися’. е. g. 1) Rising, hе went to the window, opened it and listened. (Ch. Вrопte) 2) Тhе mооn was just rising, low and far behind the river bushes. (Galsworthy) Phr. to rise to the occasion – to bе fit (able) to do something at аn appropriate moment. 2. to get up after sleep ‘вставати (після сну)’. е. g. In the morning hе would rise at five o'clock to trudge оff to the pit... (Leп Doherty) rise, n. 1. thе act of rising; elevated place ‘підйом; підвищення’. е. g. … after dinner, tired with their earlу rise, they separated and slept. (Maughaт) 2. increase of price, value; sаlаrу ‘підвищення цін, зріст зарплатні’. е. g. Custom officials at Orly Airport, Paris, began…аnothеr 48-hour strike yesterday for а 12s pay rise. (Daily Worker, February 1958) rising, n. 1. the act of getting up (as, the rising from sleep, the rising of the sun) ‘підйом, схід’. e. g. A soft sound of rising now became audible. (Ch. Bronte) 2. revolt (often: uprising) ‘повстання’. e. g. Do you think that the rising upon that occasion was rebellion or not? (Scott) rising, a. 1. increasing in wealth, power, influence, intensity ‘що підіймається, зростає’. e. g. Тhе rising importance of Leeds had attracted the notice of successive government. (Macaulay) shake, v. t. & i. 1. tо move with quick, short motions, to agitate ‘трясти; струшувати, качати(ся)’. е. g. Не shook his head disapprovingly… (Croпiп) Phr. to shake hands - to clasp a person's hand, as in greeting. 2. to trеmblе ‘тремтіти’. е.g. “...the fact that уоu are my eldest and – forgive mе,” – his voice shook slightly – “mу much beloved son – – have caused mе to rest my hopes on уоu.” (Cronin) Phr. to shake in one's shoes, to shake like аn aspen leaf – to shake from great fear. 3. to strike with wonder, terror ‘зворушувати’. е. g. She will bе shaken when she first hears the news. (Thackeray) 4. to make or become unsteady ‘коливати(ся), хитати(ся)’. е. g. Lady Clarinda has shaken уour confidence in me. (Collins) Syn. shake, tremble, quiver, shiver, shudder.
With adverbs and postpositions: shake off (Lit and fig.) tо get rid of ‘струшувати, позбутися’. е. g. 1)... Gilbert was silent for а few minutes and shook of the ash of his cigarette on to the flооr. (Walpole) 2) I had а disagreeable feeling of weakness that I couldn't shake off. (Wells) shake, n. a rapid quivering motion; а nod of the head ‘трясіння; кивок’. е. g. “You're weak with them, Mrs. Lindsay,” Harriet would remark with а shake of her coppery head. (J. Lindsay) shaky, а. unsteady (of things) (as, а shaky staircase); unsettled (in mind оf character; аs, а shaky fellow) ‘нестійкий’. е. g. Glodin led his guests into … the parlour. Не seated them at а shaky, oval-shaped table... (Неут) Phr. to feel shaky – to feel weak, uncertain of oneself. wake (often with uр), v. t, & i. 1. tо cease to sleep ‘прокидатися, пробуджуватися’. е. g. Thе next time hе woke Аli was still there... (G. Greene) 2. not to slеер (poetic, in соmmon use: (tо bе аwаkе) ‘не спати’. е. g. Was it а vision or а waking dream? Fled is that music: do I wake or sleep? (Keats) 3. tо rouse from sleep ‘будити’. e.g. You must wake me at nine tomorrow. (О. Wilde)
2.2. Vocabulary PracticeWORD-BUILDING 1. Complete the table by filling in each part of speech section.
2. Use the word given in capitals at the end of the sentence to form a word that fits in the gap. 1. The fishermen like telling anecdotes about the ……… feats they performed last season. marvel 2. The girl smiled ……… at the woman, to thank her. bright 3. Only then did Francis notice the ………, shimmering figure between the two duellists. SHADOW 4. He let his expression ……… into a smile. BROAD 5. It is amazing that you can look so ……… and yet sound so much more authoritative! DIGNIFY 6. Tall, in his fifties, his plump ……… face was disfigured with a stubble of unshaven hair. RED 7. The church bell was tolling ……… as the carriage entered the cemetery gate. MOURN 8. His head turned on me with a snake-like ………., accusingly, but he said nothing. SWIFT 9. His face showed feeling and seemed to ………. under the rays of a thought. BRIGHT 10. Her eyes shone as ……… as the sun. BRIGHT 3. Complete the sentences with the appropriate derivatives of one of the words below in their correct form. Analyze the morphological structure of the words inserted, define the origin of the affixes used, their function and productivity; translate the words into Ukrainian. bright dark faint marvel red shake quick glitter care 1. А faint smile … her face for а moment. 2. In the darkness he perceived … the form of the lady upon the rear seat. 3. We were аlonе, thousands of miles from аnу of our own реорlе, surrounded by …. 4. Bateman was silent for a moment and his handsome sensitive face …. 5. It has been a … experience. 6. “Seems we have tough luck”, Willoughby continued …. 7. His lips … moved, and now Mackintosh had to put his ears quite close to them in order to hear. 8.... Fleur lingered now, stood by the … dog... 9. I was so pleased to read that people are reverting to real Christmas trees instead of the ghastly, … artificial things that have been popular for so long. 10. He sat, petrified, the implications of his … seeping into his brain. 11. She was smartly dressed in a black velvet jacket with a … brown collar and cuffs... 12. Тhе old mаn took а piece of crayon in а … hand and madе а scrawl. 4. Find productive adjective-forming suffixes in the text and pick out all the instances of their use from the text. Comment on their generalized meaning. 5. Form adjectives from the words below making use of the productive adjective-forming suffixes. suspicion; year; danger; fun; help; friend; industry; storm; care; part; poison; yellow; order; glory; sun; child. POLYSEMY 1. Think of one word only which can be used appropriately in all the three sentences. 1) a) 1836 to 1848 were … times but a change in fashions brought relative prosperity by the middle of the century and in 1855 the large extension to the north was built. b) The harvest was … that year and they had to increase import. c) Main courses might include fish, poultry, … meat and vegetarian dishes, but you should avoid sauces! 2) a) Yet there were … moments, and the overall feelings in his life were those of contentment and growing confidence. b) A … colour relieved the paleness of Sarah's cheeks. c) We've got some extremely competent and … students, and I'd like to think that they'll do quite well. 3) a) He was more frightened than he had been in all the time he had been with them, and he could tell that the girl was frightened too, by her quick, … breathing. b) It shows how … the council's commitment to the environment really is. c) Then they rode across the river, across the … bit. 2. Cross out the word which does not collocate with the word in bold. 1. bright a) eyes b) sun c) morning d) prospects e) eyesight f) idea g) light 2. brighten a) life b) happiness c) eye d) someone’s existence e) house f) scene g) face 3. dim a) darkness b) view c) room d) memories e) light f) daylight g) resemblance 4. obscure a) machinery b) day c) poet d) genius e) room f) sunshine g) vision 5. faint a) blush b) smile c) room d) sound e) voice f) light g) tremor 3. Define the meanings of the words itаliсizеd. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. 1. а) Dave Nelson stood in thе bright light of the kitchen doorwaу, his uniform сар in hand. (Carter) b) Johnny was nothing outstanding yet, he thought… just а bright kid with а lot of energy and some good stuff in him. (Len Doherty) 2. a) …the rain dripped off his stiff dark hat and ran in streams down his black civil servant's overcoat. (G. Greene) b)... She was seized by а gust of curiosity to see that wife of his... Was she in England? Was she dark, like her brother Francis? (Galsworthy) 3. а) And yet here hе was now, оn the street corner in the dark... (Dreiser) b)...I’m not in the dark as to anything – not one thing – even уоu. (Dreiser) 4. а)... the Marquess rose, placed his foot оn his chair, and leaning his elbow on his knее inclined his head to оnе side. (Gаlswоrthy) b) Phuong had risen before I was properly awake and had our tea ready. (G. Greeпe) 5. a) Тhе unexpected … confession wrung from her... shook him perceptibly. 4. Translate the following sentences into English. 1. а) Хоча дитині було лише три роки, хлопчик був дуже кмітливим. 2. а) Ми не мали підстав не вірити мисливцю, який повідомив, що в цьому районі багато вовків. б) Туристи опустили свої рюкзаки на землю і почали готувати вечерю. 3. а) Роман Джованьолі «Спартак» присвячений повстанню рабов у Римі. 4. а) Усі країни світу були вражені вибухом атомної бомби в Хіросімі. б) Ніщо не могло похитнути рішення юнака стати пілотом. 5. Make uр sentences оf your own using the following polysemantic words in their different meanings: 1) dark, а; 2) faint, а; 3) ground; 4) quick; 5) shake, v.
SYNONYMS 1. Point out the synonyms; comment on the difference in the shades of their meaning or / and in expressive-evaluative or / and stylistic colouring; translate the sentences into Ukrainian. 1. a) Passing into his dressing-room, hе stood looking out of the window at the dark square below. (Galsworthy) b)... I could hear the clock tick in its obscure corner... (Ch. Вrопte) с) We toiled оn until the light grew dim... (J. Loпdoп) 2. а) Тhе bоу had been the joy and marvel of the young parent... (Wells) b) Perhaps the age of miracles has returned. One must bе prepared for everything, оur philosophers say. (Forster) c)... Pledger stopped, peering in wonder into the darkness that lау over the city. (Saxtoп) 3. а) Тhе voice which answered had that quick little way of shaping words that was so amusing tо Winifred... (Galsworthy) b) Аll... is prepared for prompt departure: to-morrow you shall go. (Сh. Brопte) 4. a) “I know I should've told you. But –” she shook her head – “I could’t. Just couldn't.” (Leп Doherty) b) She shuddered and pressed herself to the wall. 2. Comment on the following. - What synonym саn bе substituted for dark if you wish to point оut something concealed bу some covering? - What synonym саn bе substituted for quick if уоu want to suggest training? - What synonym cаn bе substituted for quick if уоu want to stress а motion soon coming оr passing? 3. Choose the best answer (A-D) which best completes each sentence below. 1. He came into the house snow-covered and …. A trembling B quivering C shivering D shuddering 2. She is always ready to provide … assistance. A quick B prompt C fast D swift 3. Look at that great honey-coloured moon that hangs in the … air. A dark B dim C obscure D dusky 4. Nor could I … off a feeling that Aunt Louise was sitting beside me, enjoying it too. A put B take C shake D get 5. For a moment he felt the old shame … in him. A arouse B increase C elevate D rise 6. The hamper gave off a … odor of melons. A red B dim C obscure D faint 7. Halfway up his … stairway he met – or rather came upon, for she rested on the stair – a young woman of a beauty that should balk even the justice of a poet's imagination. A dark B dim C obscure D faint 8. Her eyes were sparkling …, and colour had come to her cheek. A quick B bright C red D marvellous 4. Translate the following sentences into English. 1. а) В тьмяному світлі ліхтарів важко було розібрати назву вулиці. б) В декораціях до вистави «Дванадцята ніч» у виконанні Шекспірівського меморіального театру переважали темні тони. 2. а) Швидке виконання наказу вирішило успіх операції. б) Глядачі милувалися прудкими, легкими рухами акробатів.
PHRASEOLOGY 1. Think of one word only which can be used appropriately in all the three sentences. 1) a) The next book must break new …, provide new insights, provide a new way of looking, or perhaps even a way of re-seeing the familiar. b) I was trespassing on forbidden …, getting close to revealing more than I should. c) Gregory and Blount had previously agreed to stand their …, and if any further treachery were intended it was to be frustrated with bullets. 2) a) She gulped, unable to continue speaking as she fought to … back the tears that were threatening to fall yet again. b) … up the good work! c) She sat in a chair with a shawl over her shoulders to … off the draughts. 3) a) Banks are under pressure from zealous regulators to raise reserves against … loans, and to be cautious about making new loans. b) Her voice was …, her eyes had become round and dull with astonishment. c) Every time she met him she felt …. 2. Раrарhrаsе the phraseological units italicized and translate thеm into Ukrainian. 1. Gregory and Вlount had previously agreed tо staпd their grouпd, and if аnу further treachery were intended it was to bе frustrated with bullets. (Dreiser) 2. That night hе relived through... his difficulty in settling down, his refusal tо fiпd апу соттоп grouпd with Pat. (J. Liпdsay) 3. Onсе hе stepped into the building hе sensed a change. The vеrу air seemed to bе in motion, as if still swirling iп the wake of men who had just а moment ago hurried through the corridors on some errand. (М. Wilsoп) 3. Usе suitаblе phraseological units instead of the words and combinations of words italicized. 1. Tom Sawyer caught а glimpse of Injun Joe in the саvе; hе decided to keep it secret from Becky. 2. The youths from different, countries at the Festivals always find common topics for discussions. 3. While in the country Pushkin shared his griefs and troubles with his nurse who was extremely responsive and sympathetic. 4. When the accused was brought to trial he was shakiпg from fear becaиse hе was aware that his crime was to bе punished severely. 5. When after а long disease the old man first went for а walk he felt rather weak. 6. Тhе manager bесаmе furious: the reporter had nоt tаkеn аn interview from а visiting cinema star. 4. Render the following words and ехpressions in English. 1) тримати в таємниці; 2) заборонена тема; 3) знайти спільну мову, порозумітися; 4) той, хто співчуває; 5) опинитися на висоті; 6) тремтіти від страху. 5. Match the meanings of the idioms with their definitions.
6. Read the text below. Some of the lines are correct and some of the lines have an extra word which should not be there. If the line is correct put a tick. If the line has a word which should not be there, write an extra word.
7. Translate the following sеntеnсеs into English using the appropriate phraseological units for the words italicized. 1. Космічний корабель «Ліберті» з міжнародною командою на борті приземлився в заданому районі. 2. На засіданнях Організації Об’єднаних Націй делегація нашої країни прагне знайти спільну мову з представниками інших країн. 3. Про політичні репресії не говорили: це була заборонена тема. 4. Діти не хотіли грати з цим хлопчиком, тому що він був образливий. 5. Скорочення штатів стало приводом для страйку працівників.
USAGE 1. Render in Ukrainian the words and combinations of words italicized. Mind that оnе and thе same wоrd in the English lаnguаge mау have different equivalents in Ukrainian. 1. a) So bright was thе moon that the flоwеrs were bright as bу day. (Mansfield) 2. a) The dew was falling – he felt it. (Galsworthy) b) They fell into conversation first about а tennis match which was being held here, and about his work. (Dreiser) с) Тhen they fell ироn еаch other, like young bulls... with hatred, with desire to hurt. (J. London) d)... once more the familiar words began to fall from his lips – “You аrе far from being a bad man.” (М. Twain) e)...when his eyes fell оn the picture of Anne, his face fell too, and he looked quickly аt Fleur… (Galsworthy) 3. а) Amid these shops rose а tall archway with а large double gate...(J. Lindsay) 4. а).. perhaps I should have to walk far; and mу strength, sorеlу shaken of late, must not break down. (Ch. Bronte) b) At that thought he shоok himself, as though hе would wake from аn evil dream. (Walpole) c) Тhе bаttеrу fired twice and the air came each time like a blow and shook the window... (Hemingway) d)... hе shook thе snuff from his fingers аs if he had shaken the dust from his feet, and quietly walked downstairs. (Dickens) е) Не didn't want to speak to mе, I'll say, but I wouldn't lеt him shake me off... (Maugham) 5. a) My memory is not bad. But it keeps me awake at night... (G. Grеепе) b) Не asked softly, “Аrе уоu awake?” (G. Greene)
2.3. Further vocabulary practice for self-study 1. Unjumble the words in the box and add them to the most suitable group of the words below.
1. wind _____________________ _____________________ 2. cloud _____________________ _____________________ 3. weather _____________________ _____________________ 4. snow _____________________ _____________________ 5. thunder _____________________ _____________________ 6. rain _____________________ _____________________ 2. Use the words from exercise 1 to complete these sentences. 1. There were very thick black … in the morning and then late in the afternoon the most torrential … I have ever seen in my life. 2. I have always preferred to live in a tropical … with very little change in … from one season to another. 3. Last night there was a very violent … and I thought the house had been struck by … at one point. 4. When I went outside, a dense … had descended on the valley and you could hardly see your hand in front of your face. 5. It was terribly hot during the day but in the evening there was a lovely cool …. 6. The ground was covered with thick … which was several feet deep in places. 3. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word in bold without changing its form. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five words, including the word given. 1. I have too much work to do at the moment. snowed I................................................................................... work at the moment. 2. The doctor told me I would be perfectly all right in the morning. rain The doctor told me I would be................................................................................... in the morning. 3. We were all crying by the end of the movie. floods We were all in................................................................................... by the end of the movie. 4. I have no problems at all at the moment. cloud There isn’t................................................................................... for me at the moment. 5. Many people disagreed strongly with the new law. storm There was................................................................................... about the new law. 4. Read the text below and decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each space. There is an example at the beginning (0). A Dramatic Storm On 31st March 2002 I had my only (0) first-hand experience of a fairly small natural disaster, when, within four hours, about 224 liters of water per square meter (1) ________________ on the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where I live. The evening before we noticed some unusual (2) _________________ formations that looked as if they were carrying a huge (3) __________________of water. It didn’t rain during the night but in the morning we noticed that the air was hot and (4)___________________. At around midday it began to (5) _____________________ but this quickly developed into quite a (6)______________ downpour. It didn’t stop. The rain continued to (7) __________________ down until about five o’clock when there was a brief pause. We didn’t go outside as we were too busy (8) ___________________ all the water that had come in through small cracks in the (9) _________________. The people who did, soon discovered that they were mistaken if they thought the storm had (10)__________________. Instead there was thunder and lightning and more torrential rain. Cars were swept (11) _________________, houses flooded and seven people (12)_________________ their lives. After storm, many people spent days without either electricity or water and others were (13)_________________ in temporary shelters until the roads could be (14)_______________ of the mud and fallen trees. It seems strange that in a place where there is a volcano that could (15) ___________________ and where there are occasional earth tremors, the first real natural disaster I experienced was flood!
Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories3.1. The Category of Informativity1. Present the text taking into account its genre, the form of narration, the general emotional tinge, the place where the scene is laid and the main characters. 2. Formulate the main concern of the text. 3. Divide the factual information of the extract into logically connected / complete parts. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each part. 4. Formulate the conceptual information of the text explicating the author’s artistic message. 5. Find the facts of socio-historic or philological character (if any) relevant in terms of the category of presupposition commenting on the background information underlying them. Explain how they enlarge the volume of the factual and conceptual information conveyed. 3.2. The Category of Implication1. Formulate the conceptual information of the text. 2. Into what and how many conceptual cores can the artistic message of the extract be compressed? Justify your opinion. 3. In what emotional key is the extract written? 4. What are, in your opinion, the dominating stylistic devices used in the extract? Which parts of the text are abundant in them? Comment on their stylistic functions. 5. What epithets reveal the author’s perception of the colour in the early morning? 6. What epithets characterize the sea sounds in the early morning? What phonetic stylistic means of natural sound imitation does the author resort to? 7. What stylistic devices and expressive means create the image of wetness accompanying the beginning of the day and what stylistic function do they perform? 8. What stylistic devices and expressive means endow the image of the sea with features of a living being? 9. What poetic visual associations are connected with the description of the sea movement in the darkness? 10. How does the portrayal of the sea changes differ at the beginning and at the end of the description? 11. What fills the description of the flock of sheep with dynamism and vitality? 12. Comment on the description of the shepherd’s appearance and behaviour. Are the poetic details of his attire and appearance suggestive of his personality? 13. Is the stylistic device of metaphor widely used in the passage? What kinds of metaphors do we observe and what implications do they create? Take into account various metaphorical images rendered not only through the stylistic device of metaphor as such but through simile, personification, metaphorical epithet, as well. 13a. What metaphorical images can be treated as the integrating images of the description? 14. With the help of which stylistic device(s) is the gradual disappearance of mist depicted? What adds to the vivid and picturesque portrayal of the final stage of this phenomenon? 15. Find instances where the author makes the reader look at the nature and hear it with her own eyes. 16. What stylistically relevant means in the dog’s portrayal endow it with qualities typical of a human being? 17. How is the idea of the dog’s being old strengthened? Do you feel a ring of humour in the description of the dog’s behaviour? 18. With the help of what stylistic device(s) is the eucalyptus tree depicted? 19. How does the syntax of the extract affect the expressivity of the description? Comment on the following stylistically relevant language means and their stylistic function. - syntactic parallelism - alternation of simple and composite sentences (in the first paragraph) - different homogeneous parts of a sentence - asyndeton, syndeton - rhetorical questions - inverted word-order and unusual (emphatic) word-order - the use of dashes 20. What imparts the description in the first logical part a certain rhythm? 21. What syntactic means contribute to the detailed description of the natural surrounding in the second physical paragraph? 22. And now that you have examined the stylistic devices and expressive means employed in the extract as a whole, dwell on the most conspicuous of them and comment on the author’s implications in each conceptual core.
3.3. The Category of Cohesion1. What words can be treated as the main key-words holding together the logical-semantic and artistic wholeness of the extract under consideration? Explain your choice. In what way does their recurrence contribute to the integrity of the text? What integrating images are these key-words closely associated with? 2. What words are logically connected with the key-word “the sea” and form the thematic group united by the common notion “water”? 3. Distinguish other thematic groups of words and word-combinations which make a noticeable contribution to the logico-semantic unity of the text. 4. What is the cohesive potential of the key-word “the sun” supported by? 5. Comment on the role synonyms proper play in the lexical cohesion of the extract. 6. What contextual synonyms and logically associated words implicitly pertain to the notion of “mist”? 7. How does antonymy (both antonyms proper and contextual ones) favour the artistic integrity of the description? 8. What lexico-semantic groups of words are conducive to the semantic and artistic wholeness of the extract? 9. What word-building means reinforce the lexical cohesion of the extract? 10. Through what associative-semantic strings of words and word-combinations is the lexical cohesion of the text also achieved?
- Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the belles-lettres text “At the Bay” by K. Mansfield.
Unit 2. Martin Chuzzlewit by Charles DickensCharles Dickens (1812 - 1870) Martin Chuzzlewit (1843—1844) is one of Dickens' satirical representations of the bourgeois society of his days. The scene is laid in England and in America. In describing scenes of American life, Dickens was influenced by impressions obtained during his trip to the United States in 1842. His treatment of American reality is tinged by his highly critical attitude to that country. Martin Chuzzlewit, a young Englishman, makes a journey to America. The chapter below deals with Martin's arrival in New York. On his way he got acquainted with an American who had set his heart on carrying him to the house of his relatives, Mr. and Mrs. Norris. There he met General Fladdock, a New Yorker who had just come back from his trip to Europe. *** CHAPTER XVII ... To be sure, it would have been impossible for the family 1) to testify purer delight and joy than at this unlooked-for appearance of General Fladdock! The general was as warmly received as if New York had been in a state of siege and no other general was to be got for love or money. He shook hands with the Norrises three times all round, and then reviewed them from a little distance as a brave commander might, with his simple cloak drawn forward over the right shoulder and thrown back upon the left side to reveal his manly breast. "And do I then," cried the general, "once again behold the choicest spirits of my country!" "Yes," said Mr. Norris the father. "Here we are, general." Then all the Norrises pressed round the general, inquiring how and where he had been since the date of his letter, and how he had enjoyed himself in foreign parts, and particularly and above all, to what extent he had become acquainted with the great dukes, lords viscounts, marquesses, duchesses, knights, and baronets, in whom the people of those benighted countries had delight. "Well, then, don't ask me," said the general, holding up his hand. "I was among 'em all the time, and have got public journals in my trunk with my name printed:" he lowered his voice and was very impressive here: "among the fashionable news. But, oh the conventionalities of that a-mazing Eu-rope!" "Ah!" cried Mr. Norris the father, giving his head a melancholy shake, and looking towards Martin as though he would say, "I can't deny it, sir. I would if I could." "The limited diffusion of a moral sense in that country!" exclaimed the general. "The absence of a moral dignity in man!" "Ah!" sighed all the Norrises, quite overwhelmed with despondency. "I couldn't have realised it," pursued the general, "without being located on the spot. Norris, your imagination is the imagination of a strong man, but you couldn't have realised it, without being located on the spot!" "Never," said Mr. Norris. "The ex-clusiveness, the pride, the form, the ceremony," exclaimed the general, emphasising the article more vigorously at every repetition. "The artificial barriers set up between man and man; the division of the human race into court cards and plain cards, of every denomination — into clubs, diamonds, spades, anything but hearts!" "Ah!" cried the whole family. "Too true, general!" "But stay!" cried Mr. Norris the father, taking him by the arm. "Surely you crossed in the Screw 2), general!?" "Well! so I did," was the reply. "Possible!" cried the young ladies. "Only think!" The general seemed at a loss to understand why his having come home in the Screw should occasion such a sensation, nor did he seem at all clearer on the subject when Mr. Norris, introducing him to Martin, said: "A fellow-passenger of yours, I think?" "Of mine?" exclaimed the general: "No!" He had never seen Martin, but Martin had seen him, and recognised him, now that they stood face to face, as the gentleman who had stuck his hands in his pockets towards the end of the voyage, and walked the deck with his nostrils dilated. Everybody looked at Martin. There was no help for it. The truth must out. "I came over in the same ship as the general," said Martin, "but not in the same cabin. It being necessary for me to observe strict economy, I took my passage in the steerage." If the general had been carried up bodily to a loaded cannon, and required to let it off that moment, he could not have been in a state of greater consternation than when he heard these words. He, Flad-dock, Fladdock in full militia uniform 3), Fladdock the General, Fladdock the caressed of foreign noblemen, expected to know a fellow who had come over in the steerage of a line-of packet ship, at the cost of four pound ten! And meeting that fellow in the very sanctuary of New York fashion, and nestling in the bosom of the New York aristocracy! He almost laid his hand upon his sword. Explanatory Notes 1) the family — the Norrises, members of the New York aristocracy. 2) the Screw — the name of the ship. 3) militia uniform — the uniform of an officer belonging to the militia — a regular military force which includes all men between 18 and 45 and is used for periodical instruction and drill but not for active service except in emergencies.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1.1. Issues for Discussion 1. What types of narration and narrative compositional forms can be distinguished in the text? Which type of narration prevails and why? 2. State where the scene is laid. 3. Are there any indications of time showing when the action takes place? Are they explicit or implicit? 4. What sides of Dickens’ genius are revealed in this passage? Does it show Dickens the satirist or Dickens the sentimentalist? Dickens the brilliant story-teller or Dickens the master of character drawing? In this connection say whether the emotional tone of the narration is homogeneous throughout the text. How would you characterize it? 5. What journey has General Fladdock returned from? In what manner is he received in the Norrises’ house and how would you account for it? 6. To what layer of the American society do the main personages belong? In what way is their social status depicted? 7. What is the subject of the main characters’ conversation? 8. Characterize the members of the host family taking account of their verbal and non-verbal behaviour. What language means are employed by the author in the speech characterization of the Norrises? Explain the recurrent use of the verbs to cry, to exclaim. What deductions as to the nature and views of these people can be drawn from their words and actions? 9. What views does the general take of the Europeans’ way of life? 10. Do the Norrises share the general’s opinion of European country and Europeans? 11. What poetic details in General Fladdock’s portrayal illustrate how his military rank affects his physical behaviour? 12. Does the general’s manner of speech confirm the impression we get of him from his portrayal? 13. What features of the European society does the general criticize and mock at? 14. Comment on the general’s reaction to Martin’s confession in the final episode of the story. Does it reflect the general’s social views? 15. Account for a wide use of exclamatory sentences in the personages’ speech. 16. In what particular remarks of the general does the dominant trait of his character display itself? 17. Point out the lines in which the action reaches its climax.
Section 2. vocabulary focusG2.1. Essential Vocabulary amazing see amaze amaze, v. t. & i. to surprise very much; to astonish greatly ‘дивувати, вражати ’. e. g.... he was amazed by the younger people's want of proper pride. (Forster) Syn. surprise, astonish, amaze.
amazement, n. great surprise or wonder ‘подив, дивування’. e. g. Lord Henry elevated his eyebrows, and looked at him in amazement. (0. Wilde) amazing, a. causing amazement (as, an amazing view, an amazing picture) ‘дивовижний,гідний подиву’. e. g. Busy as a bee as usual, I suppose. You're simply amazing. (Maugham) amazed, a. struck with wonder (as, an amazed look) ‘здивований, вражений’. e. g. "Well, the expedition where that occurs can scarcely be called a successful one," said Fielding with an amazed stare. (Forster) cross, v. t. & i. 1. (Lit. and fig.) to pass, especially from one side (end) to the other (as, to cross the street, the room; to cross the mind) ‘перетинати; переходити; переїжджати; переправлятися’. е. g.1) I crossed the road and came to the beach. (Maugham) 2) Perhaps he had better move on and avoid the place, and even as the thought crossed his mind his fingers touched the wood of the door. (G. Greene) Phr. to cross one's path — to oppose. 2. to oppose (as, no one likes to be crossed) ‘суперечити, протидіяти’. e. g.... I have heard my father say he would rather cross a hungry wolf than thwart Richard. Varney in his projects. (Scott) 3. to lie or cut across; to extend or reach across (as, the bridge crosses the river; the road crosses the field). e. g. Above the town the stream was crossed by a crazy wooden bridge. (M. Twain) Phr.to cross one's t's and dot one's i's — to state the matter with utmost precision. 4. (Lit. and fig.) to place across or crosswise (as, to cross one's legs; our roads cross) ‘схрещувати(ся)’. e. g. 1) "How much do you know of your friend Pyle?" - "Not very much. Our tracks cross, that's all." (G. Greene) 2) Then she closed the dead eyes and crossed the hands upon the breast. (M. Twain) Phr.to cross swords (with) — to fight or argue with. cross off (or out) (as, to cross out a word, a passage) ‘викреслювати’. e.g. When in doubt cross (leave) it out. (A proverb) cross, n. ‘хрест’. e. g. In the church and at the cross, a kneeling figure or two. (Dickens)
Red Cross — an international society for relieving sufferings in war or calamity ‘Червоний Хрест’. cross examination — ‘перехресний допит’. e. g. She would have to appear in court, identify the prisoner, and submit to cross-examination by an Indian lawyer. (Forster) cross-cut, n.—a direct path; a short cut ‘найкоротша путь’. cross-road, n. —a place where roads cross or intersect ‘перехрестя’. crossword (puzzle), n. — ‘кросворд’. cross, a. bad-tempered, angry; in a bad humour (as, a cross person; a cross answer) ‘роздратований, злий, розгніваний’. e. g. So the leave-taking began. Everyone was cross, or wretched. (Forster) delight, n. great pleasure, enjoyment ‘захоплення, захват; насолода’. e, g. "Ask something more," he said presently; "It is my delight to be entreated, and to yield." (Ch. Bronte) Syn. pleasure, delight, rapture.
delightful, a. highly pleasing; giving great pleasure; charming ‘чарівний, прекрасний’. e. g. "If they're so foolish as to miss the train, that's their loss, not ours." — "We're going to have a delightful time, without them." (Forster) delighted, a. greatly pleased; full of joy ‘захоплений’.
delight, v. t. & i. to be greatly pleased; to rejoice ("as, to delight in swimming) ‘захоплюватись, насолоджуватись;.давати насолоду’. e. g. 1) I delight in fine pictures — I long to be able to paint such. (G. Eliot) 2). your return will delight us all. (Dickens) deny, v. t. & 1. 1. to declare untrue; to contradict ‘заперечувати, спростовувати’. e. g. "She's here," Mrs. Baines said;"you can't deny she's here." (G. Greene) 2. a) to refuse to give (as, to deny someone aid, support, advice, etc.) ‘відмовити кому-небудь в чому-небудь’. e.g. "Poor fellow!" said Nicholas, "your hard fate denies you any friend but one, and he is nearly as poor and helpless as yourself." (Dickens) b) to refrain from (as, to deny oneself pleasure, comfort etc.) ‘відмовляти собі в чому-небудь’. е. g. He denied himself the enjoyments that most boys indulge in. (J. London) 3. to refuse to acknowledge or recognize (as, to deny one's word, signature etc.) ‘відмовлятись, зрікатись, заперечувати’. e.g. I shall never deny knowing a man from whom I have borrowed money. denial, n. 1. refusal to admit the truth of a statement, of a charge, etc.; contradiction ‘заперечення, спростування’. e. g. That was too much; he couldn't speak, but he could move his mouth in terrified denial. (G. Greene) expect, v. t. & i. 1. to think that a person (or thing) is coming or that an event will happen ‘очікувати’. e. g. 1) "Is your brother in?" — "I am expecting him any moment." (G. Greene) 2) I expect the news every day now. (M. Twain) 2. to look for; to calculate upon ‘очікувати, розраховувати’. e. g. Hawkins approached, expecting his footfall to attract attention, but it did not. (M. Twain) 3. think, suppose предполагать, полагать, думать.
expectation, n. 1. the state of looking forward to something ‘очікування’. e. g. Every time that I returned home it was with the expectation of disaster. (G. Greene) Phr. according to expectation(s) — in the way that was expected; beyond expectation(s) — in a way greater or better than was expected; contrary to expectation, against expectations — in a way different from what was expected; to answer (meet) one's expectation(s), to come up to one's expectations — to be equal to what was expected. 2. that which is expected; future prospects ‘сподівання; передчуття’. e. g. Great Expectations by Charles Dickens. (A title) unexpected, a. not looked for; sudden ‘непередбачений; несподіваний’ e. g. I laughed. I couldn't help it. It was so unexpected. (G. Greene) give a shake — to shake. The combination of the verb to give with the noun becomes equivalent to a verb: to give a laugh—to laugh; to give a sigh—to sigh; to give a groan—to groan; to give a start—to start etc. hold, v. t. & i. 1.to keep with the hands, arms or other means; to keep possession of ‘тримати, утримувати’. e. g. By the candle she held was revealed a narrow passage, terminating in a narrow stair. (Ch. Bronte) Phr. to hold one's ground, to hold one's own — not to give way; to keep one's position. 2. to retain (sometimes with in) ‘утримувати; затримувати’. e. g. He wrote to her from Harding. saying that he should be held in service longer than he had expected... (M. Twain) 3. to keep the same; to last, to continue, how long will this fine weather hold? cold weather held for a month) ‘утримуватись (про погоду)’. Phr. to hold true — to keep true; to hold good — to keep good. 4. to be the owner of property, to hold land; to occupy; to hold a place) ‘мати; володіти’. e. g. It was well that Mrs. Hawkins held the purse — otherwise the treasures would have lasted but a very little while. (M. Twain) 5. to contain; to have room or space for (as, this bottle holds a quart) ‘вміщувати в собі’. е. g. A ruined tank held a little water which would do for the animals. (Forster) 6. to have an opinion about; to regard; to consider, ‘думати, вважати’. e.g. 1) You have a right to hold that opinion if you choose. (Forster) 2) You would be held responsible for this lady's safety, my dear fellow. (Forster) 7. to keep or refrain from acting; to get control of (mostly in the phr.: to hold one's breath, hold your tongue) ‘зупиняти, стримувати’. e. g. It was some while since the pain had returned, now that I was lying still — and holding my breath... (G. Greene) 8. to conduct (a meeting, a conference); to carry on (a conversation) ‘проводити (збори); вести (розмову)’. е. g. It was at eleven o'clock the next morning that the aunts and uncles came to hold their consultation. (G. Eliot) With adverbs and postpositions: hold out (one's hand) - to stretch out ‘простягати’. e. g. "How do you do?" said Adela,... pulling herself, together., She held out her hand. (Forster) hold up - to raise ‘підіймати’. e. g. He held up his hand in protest. "Impossible. Take back such a terrible remark." (Forster) hold, n. the act or manner of grasping or seizing; grip ‘володіння, загарбання’. e. g. His hold on life was strong and it was very, very hard to loosen. (Dickens) Phr. to catch hold of — to seize, grasp (a thing or person); to take (get, lay) hold of — to take, seize, grasp. holder, n. 1. possessor, usually in compounds (as, an office-holder, share-holder); device for holding something (as, a pen-holder, a gas-holder). e. g. If any share-holder has any question to put, I shall be glad to answer it. (Galsworthy)
inquire, v. t. & i. to ask about; to try to get information ‘питатись, дізнаватись, довідуватись’. e. g. I have hunted high and low for him, and inquired of everybody, but in vain... (M. Twain) Syn. ask, inquire, question, interrogate.
inquiry, n. 1. question ‘довідування, розпитування’. e. g. There was a usual stoppage at the barrier guard-house (застава) and the usual lanterns came glancing forth for the usual examination and inquiry. (Dickens) 2. Investigation; official inquiry (into) расследование, следствие. e. g. Mr. Lorry's inquiries into Miss Pross's personal history had established the fact that her brother Solomon was a heartless scoundrel who had stripped her of everything she possessed. (Dickens) part, n. 1. a portion, a piece, a fragment часть, доля. e. g. Few of the men wore whiskers...; some had a thick jungle of hair under the chin and hiding the throat... but no part of any individual's face had seen a razor for a week. (M. Twain) Phr.for the most part — in most cases; generally; in part — to a certain degree; partly; part and parcel — an essential or necessary part. 2. a division of a book (as, Part 1, Part II) ‘частина (в книзі), випуск’. е. g. ' Vanity Fain a Novel Without a Hero" in two parts. (A title) 3. a person's share in an action; his duty, responsibility ‘участь, частка (в роботі.), обов’язок, що виконується’. е. g.... you perform your own part in life, and burden no one. (Ch. Bronte) Phr. to have (take) part in — to participate in. 4. a character given to an actor in a play; a theatrical role ‘роль’. e. g.... Pedro played the part of a big, noisy, and troublesome second. (Thompson) Phr. to play (act) a part (lit. and fig.) — to behave unnaturally in an attempt to deceive. 5. (Chiefly in phr.) a side in a dispute, quarrel ‘сторона (в спорі)’. Phr. for my part — as far as I am concerned; on the part of — proceeding from. part, v. t. & i. to separate or cause to separate (as, to part one's hair; to part with [from] a person) ‘розділяти(ся), розлучатися’. e. g. 1) I must leave Adele and Thornfield. I must part with you for my whole life. (Ch. Bronte) 2) When we parted she said, "Good-bye, cousin Jane Eyre; I wish you well." (Ch. Bronte) Phr. to part friends — to leave each other without any feeling of ill-will. parting, n. separation, going away from each other ‘розлучення, прощання’. e. g. At the moment of parting, she hesitated as if she expected him to ask something. (M. Wilson) press, v. t. & i. 1. to act on with force or weight, to push steadily on or against (as, to press the button)’стискати, надавлювати, натискувати’. e. g. "Listen, Jim." She freed her hand and leaned against him, pressing both her palms to his chest. (Len Doherty) 2. to urge forward with force ‘просуватися, пробиватись вперед’. e. g. Then the Germans were in possession of Laon and Rheims and still pressing south. (Wells) 3. to squeeze, to compress; specifically: to iron (as, to press clothes) ‘стискати; прасувати (праскою)’. е. g. 1) Lady Casterley pressed her faded lips together. (Galsworthy) 2) Caroline... had pressed his suits, sewed buttons on his shirts. (Cronin) 4. to embrace (as, to press to one's heart) ‘притискати’. e. g. Lanny put his arm round her shoulder and pressed her to him. (Abrahams) 5. to demand immediate action ‘вимагати негайної дії’. Phr. time presses — there is no time to wait; to be pressed for time — to be short of time; to be pressed for money — to be short of money. 6. to insist on; to force; to compel; to urge on ‘наполягати; примушувати’. e. g.... a storm blew up and Bill was pressed to stay for the night. (J. Lindsay) press, n. newspapers, magazines and printed publications in general ‘друк, преса’. e. g. The thoughts of the coming April, of leaving Indo-China.were affected by the day's telegrams, the bulletins of the Vietnam Press and by the illness of my assistant. (G. Greene) press-man — a journalist, a reporter ‘журналіст, репортер’. press-cutting — a paragraph, a review, etc. cut out of a newspaper ‘газетна вирізка’. press-conference — collective interview granted to journalists ‘прес-конференція’. e. g. It was 1 now who had to attend the wearisome Press Conference.(G. Greene) pressure, n. the act of pressing; a condition of distress; oppression ‘тиск; гніт’. e. g. It was not however till the pressure of the 1935—45 war that Australia became an industrial country. (J. Lindsay) pressing, a. urgent, requiring immediate attention ‘невідкладний; спішний’. e. g. "Is then our danger so pressing?" asked Cora. (Cooper) pursue, v. t. & i. 1. to follow after; to chase (as, to pursue the enemy) ‘переслідувати; гнатися’. e. g. Thus we pursued him, just behind him but never catching him, for an hour... (Sinclair Lewis) 2. to aim at; to proceed along (as, to pursue a plan, action, course) ‘переслідувати (мету); прямувати наміченим шляхом’. е. g. 1)... This is the best plan to pursue with you, I am certain. (Ch. Bronte) 3. to go on, to continue one's way ‘продовжувати’. e. g. 1) "We'd better not pursue the subject," and turning to Winifred she said, "How is Montagu?" (Galsworthy) 2) He just doggedly pursued his way, leaning a little forward as he walked... (Ch. Bronte) pursuit, n. 1. act of pursuing; endeavour to catch (as, the pursuit of a fox, hare; the pursuit of an enemy); also fig. (as, pursuit of happiness; pursuit of money) ‘переслідування; гонитва’. e. g. 1) No more firing was heard at Brussels — the pursuit rolled miles away. (Thackeray) 2) Then began a frantic pursuit-of knowledge. I returned to California and opened the books. (J. London) 2. оccupation, profession or pastime (as, literary pursuits) ‘заняття, захоплення’. e. g. In my reading and my pursuits here I have had a freedom which I never enjoyed in England (Thackeray) pursuance, n. act of pursuing; performance (chiefly in phr.: in pursuance of) ‘переслідування; виконання’. e. g. In pursuance of this resolve he had to get ready to "amalgamate his business with another firm. (Galsworthy) true, a. 1. real; not false; genuine (as, a true scholar; a true diamond; true friendship) ‘істинний, дійсний’. e. g. 1)... for a moment he regretted that he had not told Basil the true reason why he had wished to hide the picture away. (O. Wilde) 2)... he is his father's lawful son and true heir. ( Thackeray) Phr. to come true — to become real, to happen according to expectation. 2. corresponding to the facts ‘той, що відповідає дійсності’. e. g. Whether what you have told me is true or not true, doesn't concern me. (O. Wilde) 3. loyal, faithful, constant, devoted ‘вірний, відданий’. e. g. "... now your heart is true to your sister. But I remember two years ago — when it was false to me!" Rebecca said... (Thackeray) 4. though (used parenthetically in colloquial speech) ‘хоча, справді’. e. g. True, his daughter had been a school-teacher and had made a very good marriage, but she lived in London now, so... her social standing didn't reflect on him up here. (Len Doherty) truth, n. quality or state of being true (in all senses) ‘правда; істина; правдивість’. e. g. "Is it true?" he shouted... his eyes terribly intent on her, as though they could tear out the truth for themselves. (Len Doherty) Phr. in truth — indeed, really, in fact; to tell (speak, say) the truth — not to lie; truly speaking — frankly speaking. truthful, a. characterized by truth ‘правдивий, вірний, правильний’. e. g.... I had believed I was tough and unimaginative, all that a truthful observer and reporter should be. (G. Greene) vigorously see vigour vigour, n. active strength or force (physical or mental); intensity (as, the vigour of mind, body; the vigour of argument, speech, style) ‘сила, енергія’. e. g. If he is old in body, he is young in mental vigour and courage. (Galsworthy) vigorous, a. full of physical or mental strength; powerful, energetic ‘сильний, енергійний’. e. g. 1) The summer came to an end, Edna reappeared early in October, browned and vigorous. (M. Wilson) 2) He had the habit of re-reading his note-books and the marked passages in the books he had read, in order to refresh his memory — which was extraordinarily vigorous and accurate. (P. Lafargue) vigorously, adv. with vigour ‘сильно, енергійно’. e. g. They abused Fielding vigorously. (Forster) 2.2. Vocabulary Practice
WORD-BUILDING1. Complete the table by filling in each part of speech section.
2. Use the word given in capitals at the end of the sentence to form a word that fits in the gap. 1. Above all he was impressed by their ………, and the haunting mournfulness of their deep-set eyes. BRAVE 2. Despite the widespread ageism which exists at both the individual and structural level, there remains widespread social ignorance and ……… of its impact. DENY 3. Pointers will enable a file to be held in a single ……… rather than separate copies being spread around the system. LOCATE 4. As for my right hon. Friend's personal position, may I express my admiration for the frank and ……… way in which he has offered his resignation? MAN 5. The list of people who have profited from crime and murder through book or film rights is growing almost daily to the ……… of victim support groups and grieving relatives. CONSTERNATE 3. Make a compound word in each sentence by choosing an appropriate word from the box.
a) You, as an old …man, fully know the difficulty of dealing with a big speech late at night. b) The first was the proposal by the Southern Gas Board to erect a 39-metre-high …holder in the historic centre of Abingdon. c) He wants to put royal spending under the …light when MPs return from their Christmas break. d) The King has invited every great …man, every high officer of the church and the Knights of the Order from Kolossi. e) Environmentalists and fishermen were protesting at the devastating effects of the Spanish and Italian drift-net fishery for sword…. f) Travelling like a …ball it flew straight into the shallow ditch at the far side. g) There are a large number of other contingencies which cross… these four political-economic contexts and modify them. 4. Restore the suppressed element in each of the compounds given below so as to give the equivalents for the Ukrainian: фломастер; супутник; схрещеннядоріг; акціонер - пайовик; журналіст; газетнавирізка; найкоротший шлях. 1) — реn; 2) — road; 3) — holder; 4) — man; 5) — cutting; 6) — cut; 5. Point out the derivatives formed from the stems of the words familiar to you and analyse their morphological structure. 1. Mrs. Hawkins would have told the first inquirer that Laura had gone to be married, but Laura had cautioned her; she did not want to be thought of, she said, as going in search of a husband... (M. Twain) 2. "Are you all right? You appeared all right when I left," said Ronny, trying not to speak crossly... (Forster) 3. You make no mistake in going to Montreux... You'll find the climate delightful and beautiful. (Hemingway) 4. I suppose you won't come on to the pole with us? We should all be delighted. (Forster) 5. Their leaders will largely deny this last statement, but an examination of their utterances, their actions and the situation will forestall such denial. (J. London) 6. And how do people perform that ceremony of parting, Jane? (Ch. Bronte) 6. Analyse the morphological structure of the words: 1) appearance; 2) impossible; 3) conventionality; 4) benighted; 5) manly;
POLYSEMY1. Give the meaning of the words italicized. Translate the sentences into Russian. 1. a) …the man threw his rifle down. I crossed the room and picked it up. (G. Green). b) He used always to sit in a particular attitude with his arms crossed on his crossed legs, looking slantingly through his glasses. (Wells). c) You father came from the setting sun, crossed the big river, fought the people off the country, and took the land… (Cooper) d)… the moment we begin to read, we at once cross the writer’s interests with our own… (P. Baum). 2. a) “I deny that,” interrupted Philip impetuously. “I could never trifle with anything that affected your sister’s happiness” (G. Eliot). b) Sir Pit was denied admission to the sick-room. (Thackeray). c) Kresney saw no reason to deny himself the satisfaction… (Diver). d) He could not deny his own hand and seal. (NED). 3. a) As he had expected, his words roused all Arlott’s stored-up hostility. (Len Doherty). b) “Will Sarah be back?” – “I don’t expect so”. (G. Greene). c) What am I to expect? You are going to punish me? (R. Browning). 4. a) She’s come rushing in barefoot, holding the tea unspilled without looking at it… (J. Lindsay) b) It took two porters as well as the driver to hold him in at the station. (Jerome K. Jerome). c)… the seven gentlemen who had held such various opinions inside the bungalow came out of it… (Forster). d) “Hold!” exclaimed the proprietor of the condemned animal, aloud, without regard to the whispering tones used by the others… (Cooper). e) This dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a word of it had reached the young lady’s ears. (Dickens) 5. a) He assumed, like an actor, the part expected of him. (Cronin). b) And when at last I made into the East End, I was gratified to find that the fear of the crowd no longer haunted me. I had become a part of it. (J. London). 6. a) Ruth pressed her mother's hand in assent. (J. London) b) The country people hanging about press near to the coach doors and greedily stare in... (Dickens) c) Lady Casterley whose lips were quivering, pressed them together very hard. (Galsworthy) d) He had refused lunch... but on being pressed, consented to take coffee. (Cronin) e) He pressed his hands to his aching head. (Maugham) f)... I am pressed for time, I have kept my conveyance waiting. Shall we proceed to the serious business of the day? (Cronin) 7. a) O pity us, kind Heaven, and help us! Look out, look out and see if we are pursued. (Dickens). b)William Dobbin was lying under a tree in the play-ground, apart from the rest of the school, who were pursuing their various sports… (Thackeray). c) The hansom pursued an aimless way for several minutes, then came to a puzzled stop. (J. London). 8. a) Why should he sigh? He had confessed a taste for the pursuit of love under difficulties; here was full gratification for that taste. His lady-love beamed upon him from a sphere above his own. (Ch. Bronte) b) To a man like Erich Pettinger,... all people were essentially cowards, who wanted to be left to the small pursuits of their daily life, their money, their beer. (Heym) 9. a) I sometimes wonder whether anything that I am putting down here is true. (G. Greene) b) I was quite overcome with astonishment, Major Scobie, to sit in a police court and hear true facts from the mouths of policemen. You must have taken a lot of trouble to find out what was true, and to make them say it. (G. Greene) 2. Think of one word only which can be used appropriately in all the three sentences. The form of the word may be changed. 1) a) We must ………. for a reduction in the number of students in a class. b) Steadily rising prices …………. most heavily on the poor. c) So as to make the machine work to its capacity ……….. the piston pin home. 2) a) The reason for the outage in the engine work might have been a defective …………. b) It was not my ……………….. to interfere. c) Respect is a very important ………………. of any relationship. 3) a) The Social Democrats ………………. office then. b) If the weather ………………, we'll both take a trip. c) She could not ………………… from saying this. 4) a) Over the years it got clear that the ………………. criminals were mistakenly acquitted. b) This breed is very …………………... c) The same proposition cannot be at once …………………. and false. 5) a) The police are currently …………………….. several lines of inquiry into the case. b) He is leaving the company to …………………………. his own business interests. c) She belongs to the category of people whom it is impossible to put off from …………………. their goals. 3. Cross out the word which does not collocate with the word in bold. 1. part a) spare b) sincere c) moving d) major e) defective 2. hold a) shares b)a rank c) the record d) valid e) a secret 3. deny a) the possibility of b) one’s seal c) a charge e) a hypothesis 4. cross a) the sea b) the road c) oneself d) time e) score 5. give a) a word b) a kiss c)a cough d) a push e) groan 4. Translate the following sentences into English 1. a) Геологи розраховували на повернення до табору за два тижні. б) Мартін Іден сподівався, що його оповідання буде опубліковано. в) Ранок був ясним та сонячним; ніхто не міг передбачити, що ввечері вдарить гроза. г) Ніхто не сподівався, що на виставу чекає успіх. д) Я гадаю, ви дотепно пожартували, сказавши, що полюбляєте лише легку музику? 2. а) Дівчинка тримала в руках кошик з грибами. б) Стадіон в Санкт - Петербурзі вміщує 100 тисяч глядачів. в) Пушкін вважав, що письменник повинен вивчати мову, звертаючись до народу. г) Знаходячись під водою, професіональний плавець може утримувати дихання протягом тривалого часу.
SYNONYMS1. Point out synonyms; comment on the difference in the shade of meaning or in colouring; translate the sentences into Ukrainian. 1. a) I told them my story, and they appeared less surprised than amused. (Jerome K. Jerome) b) The river astonished the children beyond measure. (M. Twain) c) "Why shouldn't he like me?" he asked, as though amazed at the idea. (Len Doherty) 2. a) Evelyn had blossomed visibly in the pleasure of her companionship... (Diver) b) Washington Hawkins' new life was an unceasing delight to him. (M. Twain) c) And thus for an hour or more the Duchess moved through the crush in a rapture of happiness, for her doubts were dead and gone... (M. Twain) 3. a) But the bill had to be paid, and Harry took it to Philip, and asked him if he thought he hadn't better drawn on his uncle. (M. Twain) b) I should be dumb not to have inquired the road I was to journey... (Cooper) c) Perhaps his heart had given way when they questioned him. (G. Greene) d) It would have been of as much avail to interrogate any stone face outside the chateau as to interrogate that face of his. The nephew looked at him in vain... (Dickens) 2. Which of the synonyms in the two groups given below do you prefer if you wish to stress the highest degree of the feeling? 1. Surprised, astonished, amazed; 2. Delight, pleasure, rapture. 3. Choose the answer (A-D) which best completes each sentence below. 1. He had never lost his vivid youthful …. A fantasy B fancy C imagination D perception 2. The way she behaved … many people. A astounded B flabbergasted C amazed D astonished 3. Sometimes it seemed to him that she had a taste for …. A sadness B melancholy C dejection D gloom
PHRASEOLOGY1. Paraphrase the phraseological expressions italicized. 1. "Oh, do not so, good my lady!" replied Janet... "Do not cross Varney's path, for... few have thriven who have thwarted his courses." (Scott) 2. Instead of antagonizing the unions, which had been their previous policy, the socialists proceeded to conciliate the unions... And this policy... has reaped fruits far beyond their fondest expectations. (J. London) 3.... nothing these two highly educated people say can confound him. He holds his own in both worlds — the physical and the intellectual. (P. S. Foner) 4.... she realized the hopelessness of her endeavours, the medical scheme took new hold of her, and seemed to her the only method to escape. (M. Twain) 5. I even held my breath, as one does with toothache. I didn't think about the Viets who would soon be searching the ruins of the tower. (G. Greene) 6. "Ever had any trouble in the office?"--"No, sir, you can make enquiry." (Galsworthy) 7. Your confidence in me ought to be returned with full confidence on my part. (Dickens) 8.... she observed with surprise, that famous statesmen and soldiers did not talk like gods,... but said rather commonplace things for the most part... (M. Twain) 9. And as time presses... the sooner I see him the better. (Collins) 10. Richard said... he would leave her, being pressed for time. (Dickens) 11. The romance, and beauty, and high vigour of the books were coming true. (J. London) 12. He was, in truth, a rare phenomenon; so perfect, in one point of view; so shallow... in every other. (Hawthorne) 13. Before I read it I began to wonder whether at the end I should lie or tell the truth to Phuong. (G. Greene) 2. Replace the words and expressions italicized by phraseological expressions. 1. The results of the match were equal to what was expected. 2. The inquisitors demanded that Giordano Bruno should denounce his theory, but he did not give way. 3. The drowning man grasped the life-preserver that was thrown over to him from the boat. 4. When the chess-tournament was over the two rivals shook hands and left each other without any feeling of ill-will. 5. The old proverb "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush" kept true in this case. 6. Martin Eden was forced to pawn his suit for he was short of money. 7. The. dreams he had almost given up as idle fancies were becoming rich. 3. Think of one word only which can be used appropriately in all the three sentences. 1) a) She swallowed several times and tried to speak, but bitter shame … her tongue. b) De Gaulle … his ground and, not for the first time, even contemplated a break with the Allies rather than accept their demands. c) Monthly sunshine figures often show a close correlation with rainfall and this … true for January 1993. 2) a) After several days of argument in this court and consideration of conflicting authorities, with no decision of this court or the House of Lords on the point, I, for my …, cannot dismiss it so easily. b) She had played a … that was alien to her nature and she had not played it well at all. c) The idea of sacrifice was … and parcel of the ancient world, and familiar to both Greek and Jew. 3) a) The majority preferred to believe the picturesque stories passed down by parents and grandparents, which were, of course, accepted as the gospel …. b) While these approaches may have a grain of … in them, they founder in the evidence of women's actual political activity around their own demands. c) In … Enigma was broken by Polish intelligence with the help of the French and although Britain was invited to join in the work before the war, it declined to do so. 4) a) We will … ahead with the reform of the current burdensome system of local government by introducing single tier councils throughout Scotland. b) He had devoted Sunday evening to making a plan of action and knew exactly what he and everyone else he could … into service was going to be doing this morning. c) Yet if they … home their advantage of games in hand, they will overtake Blackburn, who have shown a staggering decline recently and could be left to fight for a play-off place. 5) a) You seem to be taking … in vexing me. b) Evelyn let out a gasp of … which she just managed to turn into a disillusioned sob. c) Down on the dark grey beach there was a collection of glaucous gulls and a few purple sandpipers, and then, to my …, a snow white ivory gull flew in and settled on the shingle, giving me the chance to stalk and photograph one of the world's rarer gulls.
USAGE1. Render in Ukrainian the words italicized. Mind that one and the same word in English may have different equivalents in Ukrainian. 1. a) A few months later he was crossing the country to conduct a lecture tour for the socialist cause... (P. S. Foner) b) "Is it true, then?" The words burst from him before he had crossed the threshold. (Len Doherty) c) They reached the main road and crossed over to where the bus stop stood... (Len Doherty) d) The shape standing ' before me had never crossed my eyes within the precincts of Thornfield Hall before... (Ch. Bronte) 2. a) I wish I'd never set eyes on you. I'll make such a scandal that you'll never be able to hold up your hands again. (Maugham) b) She knew that he was leaning against the window, holding up his book to get the last of the daylight. (J. Lindsay) c) A French lancer had speared the young ensign in the leg, who fell, still bravely holding to his flag. (Thackeray) 3. a) Harry asked the Senator if there was a class of young ladies for him to teach, and after that the Senator did not press the subject. (M. Twain) b) Martin was the only one capable of handling a boat, and he was pressed into service. (J. London) 4. a) Bramwell came slowly, his large feet pressing down the pavement majestically, his seedy black figure erect... (Cronin) b) What was it about her that provoked this pressing interest?... What did he really know of her? (Cronin) c) My circumstances being so very pressing, however, I said I would take nine pence for it. (Dickens) 5. a) And still Madame Defarge pursuing her way along the streets, came nearer and nearer. (Dickens) b) Neither at home nor elsewhere did Ruth utter any complaint, or admit any weariness or doubt of her ability to pursue the path she had marked out for herself. (M. Twain) c)... There was a hostility between them. Each pursued his own train of thought. (Lawrence) d) Bicket's eyes pursued the hastening form. (Galsworthy) e) Ill-luck pursued me. (Ch. Bronte) 6. a) Mrs. Gradgrind usually dismissed her children to their studies with this general injunction to choose their pursuit. (Dickens) b) And it was agreed that Ruth... should take lodgings with friends near the college, and make a trial in the pursuit of that science to which we all owe our lives... (M. Twain) 7. a)... the Montagues steadily improved their condition from the day they landed, and they were never more vigorous or prosperous than at the date of this narrative. (M. Twain) b) She had will and pride and courage and ambition, and she was left to be very much her own guide at the age... when the awakening powers of her vigorous mind had little object on which to discipline themselves. (M. Twain) c)... it was По light matter which could thus bow the resolute spirit and thrill the vigorous frame of Mr. Rochester. (Ch. Bronte) 8. a) Bishop stood up. He massaged his bald crown vigorously with a towel. (Maltz) b) Fleur raised her head, and revealed the baby sucking vigorously at her little finger. (Galsworthy) c) Then Johnny reached quickly for the other pot, vigorously boiling on the stove. (Carter) 2. Give the English equivalents for the words and phrases below; use phraseology where possible: 1) здивований погляд; 2) перехресний допит; 3) несподіваний; 4) понад сподівання; 5) всупереч очікуванням; 6) довідуватись; 7) грати роль; 8) перехрестя. 3. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the way the words italicized are rendered in Ukrainian. 1. а) Людина, яка відмовляється від своїх слів, не викликає довіри, б) Полонений відмовився дати свідчення щодо розміщення військ. в) Попри всі загрози, Джордано Бруно не відмовився від своїх ідей, г) Чи не відмовитеся ви виступити (speak) замість мене на зборах? У мене дуже сильний головний біль. 2. а) Правда цінніша за все. б) Насправді, він не такий вже поганий робітник. 3. а) Пасажир зайняв вільне місце біля вікна. б) Ми сподіваємось, що лижники від нашого інституту зможуть посісти перше місце в майбутніх змаганнях. 4. а) Дитина міцно тримала мати за руку. б) Студент склав іспит достроково.
Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories3.1. The Category of Informativity 1. Present the text under analysis focussing on its genre, the type of narration, the place where the scene is laid and the main characters. Pay special attention to the general emotional tinge of the narration. Is it serious, matter-of-fact or humorous, satiric? 2. Formulate the main concern of the text. 3. State which types of information can be elicited from the excerpt. 4. Say into how many logically complete parts the factual information of the text falls. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each part. 5. Formulate the conceptual information of the text explicating the author’s artistic message. 6. Find the facts of socio-historic significance relevant in terms of the category of presupposition commenting on the background information underlying them. 3.2. The Category of Implication 1. To formulate the conceptual information of the extract under analysis, say what and who are exposed to the author’s ridicule? What vices and defects of the representatives of the New York aristocracy are subjected to Dickens’s biting criticism? 2. How is the Norrises’ admiration for the general brought out stylistically? 3. Is the general’s portrait painted in full accord with his inner properties? What stylistic devices serve to depict his conceit and pomposity? 4. Is the general’s character shaped mainly through the description of his actions or his speech? 5. How are his views voiced in his remarks concerning Europe? What stylistic impact does spacing of graphemes, namely, hyphenation of the words ‘a-mazing’, ‘Europe’ and ‘ex-clusiveness’ produce? 6. What syntactical stylistic devices in the general’s remarks are representative of his high-flown manners of speech and his narrow-mindedness? 7. What lexical stylistic device(s) in the general’s speech is based on the image of a card game? What is the author’s implication in this case? 8. Comment on the stylistically relevant language means used in the concluding logical part rendering the general’s social prejudices. 9. What syntactic and lexical stylistic devices serve to depict the Norrises’s willingness to flatter the general and to share his critical opinion of Europe and Europeans? 10. What stylistic function does the stylistic device of chiasmus play in unfolding the narration? 11. What role does the abundant use of the -ing forms and the predicative complexes with them play in the depiction of the main characters’ behaviour? 12. How is the intonation of spoken language kept throughout the text? What is the role of one-member and elliptical sentences in this case? 13. And now that you have carefully analyzed the stylistic devices and expressive means employed in the extract as a whole, dwell on the author’s implications in the most conspicuous stylistic means. 3.3. The Category of Cohesion 1. What words denoting the object of Dickens’s satire can be treated as the chief key-words holding together the logical-semantic and artistic wholeness of the excerpt? 2. In what way does their recurrence contribute to the integrity of the text? What integrating artistic images are the key-words closely associated with? 3. What role do the words pertaining to the lexico-semantic group of verbs of speaking play in the character-drawing of General Fladdock and the Norrises? 4. What other lexico-semantic groups of words are conducive to the semantic and artistic globality of the extract? 5. Distinguish words and word-combinations thematically united by the common notions of: a) social ranks; b) military sphere; c) sea voyage; d) emotional state, and explain how they make for the logical-semantic and artistic integrity of the text. 6. Comment on the role synonyms proper and contextual synonyms play in the lexical cohesion of the text. 7. How does antonymy reinforce the lexical cohesion of the extract? 8. Through what associative strings of words and word-combinations is the lexical cohesion of the text also achieved? Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the belles-lettres text “Martin Chuzzlewit” by Ch. Dickens.
PART TWO ENGLISH NEWSPAPER STYLEI. General Notes1.1. Formation of the British Press and the influence of its specific conditions on the newspaper EnglishNewspaper style was the last of all the functional varieties of written literary English to be recognized as a specific form of writing standing apart from other forms. English newspaper writing dates from the 17th century. At the close of the 16th century short news pamphlets began to appear. Any such publication either presented news from only one source or dealt with one specific subject. News pamphlets appeared only from time to time and can not be classed as newspapers, though they were unquestionably the immediate forerunners of the British press. The first of any regular series of English newspapers was the Weekly Newes which first appeared on May 23, 1622. It lasted for some twenty years till in 1641 it ceased publication. The 17th century saw the rise of a number of other news sheets which, with varying success, struggled on in the teeth of discouragement and restrictions imposed by the Crown. With the introduction of a strict licensing system many such sheets were suppressed, and the Government, in its turn, set before public a paper of its own – The London Gazzette, first published on February 5, 1666. The paper was a semi-weekly and carried official information, royal decrees, news from abroad and advertisements. The first English daily newspaper – the Daily Courant – was brought out on March 11, 1702. The paper carried news, largely foreign, and no comment, the latter being against the principles of the publisher, as was stated in the first issue of his paper. Thus the early English newspaper was principally a vehicle of information. Commentary as a regular feature found its way into the newspaper later. But as far back as the middle of the 18th century the British newspaper was very much like what it is today, carrying on its pages news, both foreign and domestic, advertisements, announcements and articles containing comments. The rise of American newspaper, which was brought onto American soil by British settlers, dates back to the late 17th, early 18th centuries. It took the English newspaper more than a century to establish a style and a standard of its own. And it is only by the 19th century that newspaper English may be said to have developed into a system of language media, forming a separate functional style. The specific conditions of newspaper publication, the restrictions of time and space, left an indelible mark on newspaper English. For more than a century writers and linguists had been vigorously attacking “the slipshod construction and the vulgar vocabulary” of newspaper English. The term newspaper English carried a shade of disparagement. Yet, for all the defect of newspaper English, serious though they may be, this form of the English literary language cannot be reduced – as some purists have claimed – merely to careless slovenly writing or to a distorted literary English. This is one of the forms of the English literary language characterized – as any other style – by a definite communicative aim and its own system of language means. Thus, English newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the speaking community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader.
1.2. Main newspaper genresInformation and evaluation co-exist in the modern English newspaper. In fact, all kinds of newspaper writing are to a lesser or greater degree, both informative and evaluative. But, of course, it is obvious that in most of the basic newspaper genres one of the two functions prevails. Since the primary function of newspaper is to impart information the English newspaper mainly conveys it through the medium of the following newspaper genres: 1) news reports, 2) brief news items and communiqués, 3) press reports ( parliamentary, of court proceedings, etc.), 4) advertisements and announcements. The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters, so, apart from providing information about the subject-matter, certain newspaper genres carry a considerable amount of appraisal, assessment, evaluation, thus demonstrating a subjective handling of facts and events. The principal vehicle of interpretation and appraisal are the following newspaper genres: 1) feature articles, 2) editorials, 3) leading articles, or leaders 4) newspaper articles in opinion columns.
1.3. Quality and popular newspapers in the British PressThere exist two main streams in the British press: big media which aims at keeping the readers informed of the state of affairs on the economic and political fronts and providing news and political opinions, and opinion media which has the function of manipulating public opinion, preventing public passions from running too high and obscuring the causes of the problems and difficulties besetting the readers. The national press of Great Britain falls into two categories known as popular press and quality press. The popular newspapers, also called tabloids or yellow press, are mass-sale publications with huge circulations, mainly of a small page format. They concentrate upon sensational news, accounts of crimes, specialize in scandalous gossip overemphasis, flagrant distortion and fabrication of news, provide a lot of information about the private life of film stars, famous sportsmen, politicians etc., playing on people’s emotions and appealing to the lowest level of public tastes. Serious news is given in a compressed form, in small type or suppressed altogether. Popular newspapers use gigantic headlines and give much space to full-page arresting pictures etc. The swaggering style and the shouted phrase are characteristic features of their language, especially of their leaders and headlines. Note 1. The word ‘tabloid’ was originally and still is used as a trademark in the drug business, and was first applied to news presented in concentrated or compressed form. Later the word came into common use, and now generally refers to newspapers smaller than the usual size. Note 2. ‘Yellow press’ are sensational publications which cater for the most depraved and vulgar tastes. The yellow press first appeared in the USA late in the 19th century. It was founded by big newspaper proprietors Pulitzer and Hearst. The term ‘yellow press’ had its origin in the yellow ink with which the rival papers of Pulitzer and Hearst decorated their comic series (comic strips). In Britain the first yellow papers were started by Northcliff Rotermere and some other newspaper tycoons. The quality papers, also called qualities or broadsheets, are more serious publications of a large, broad sheet format which are successful on much smaller circulations than popular papers. Unlike popular papers quality newspapers provide more serious reading matter, concerning themselves with national and international news, informative journalism and editorial commentary upon political, social and economic problems, literature, art, education. They represent the interests of the Government and of major political parties of Britain, being their official or unofficial organs. In contrast to popular papers quality newspapers are more restrained both in their news presentation manner and in their typographical design. Their make-up is also more restrained and sober, their headlines are informative statements, and not editorial yells as in popular papers. However, it should be borne in mind that basically the popular and the quality press are very closely related to each other. The most famous British quality national dailies are: The Times (1785), The Guardian (1821), The Daily Telegraph (1855), The Financial Times (1888), The Independent (1986). The most well-known British quality national Sundays are: The Observer (1791), The Sunday Times (1882), The Sunday Telegraph (1961). The most famous British popular notional dailies are: The Daily Mail (1896), The Daily Mirror (1903), The Daily Express (1900), The Sun (1964), The Morning Star (1966), The Daily Star (1978), The Today (1986). The most widely known popular National Sundays are: The News of the World (1843), The Sunday Express (1918), The Sunday Mirror (1963), The Mail of Sunday (1982). Different quality and popular newspapers appeal to different categories of readership. Read the following passage expressing a jocular opinion of the categories of some British newspapers’ readers: The Times is read by the people who run the country. The Mirror is read by the people who think they run the country. The Guardian is read by the people who think about running the country. The Morning Star is read by the people who think they ought to run the country. The Mail is read by the wives of the people who run the country. The Telegraph is read by the people who think the country ought to be run as it used to be. The Express is read by the people who think it still is run as it used to be. The Sun is read by the people who don’t care who runs the country as long as the girl on page three is attractive.
1.4. An outline of the analysis of a newspaper writing1.4.1. To fully understand the linguo-stylistic peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyse the two basic newspaper genres, namely, a news report as best illustrating a purely objective, matter-of-fact way of presenting information, on the one hand, and a feature article as a vehicle of subjective interpretation and appraisal, on the other. The first step in the analysis of a newspaper writing is to distinguish between the above two newspaper genres and to justify your choice. It is recommended that you should do it in accordance with the following plan: 1. to characterize the type of information a newspaper item conveys and the author’s attitude towards it; 2. to analyse the arrangement (layout) of the information conveyed (the division into physical and conceptual paragraphs, the presence of the so-called ‘lead’); 3. to highlight the most salient linguo-stylistic features of a newspaper writing in question, including lexical and certain grammatical ones. 4. to comment upon linguo-stylistic peculiarities of a headline and subheadings (if any); 5. to make a conclusion concerning the genre of a newspaper writing under analysis. 1.4.2. Further analysis of a newspaper text presupposes the implementation of a textlinguistic approach to it. Like any text, a newspaper text, no matter what genre it belongs to, is characterized by functional-communicative, structural and semantic wholeness which, first and foremost, manifests itself in the unity of its compositional structure and the logico-semantic integrity of its content. So, it is expedient to focus on the analysis of a newspaper text in terms of such important text categories as informativity and cohesion turning, first of all, to various lexical means of cohesion which contribute to the logico-semantic wholeness of a text.
Assignements for self-controlMake sure you can answer these questions1. What kind of publications can be regarded as immediate forerunners of the British press? 2. What were the first, more or less, regular series of English newspapers and why did they cease publication or were suppressed? 3. What was the first British newspaper supported by the Government and what kind of information did it carry? 4. What were the requirements of the publishers imposed on the first English daily newspaper? 5. When did the British newspaper come to be very much like what it is today? 6. What factors left an indelible mark on newspaper English and what was it vigorously criticized for by purists in the field of language use? 7. When did the newspaper English develop into a separate functional style and what features is it characterized by? 8. What are the two main functions of modern English newspaper and what newspaper genres serve as main vehicles of these functions? 9. Characterize the main streams in the British press and the kind of newspapers they are represented by? 10. Dwell on the differences between tabloids and broadsheets.
II. News reportingGeneral Notes2.1. Demands and constrains of the newspaper EnglishThe reporting of news reflects one of the most difficult and constraining situations to be found in the area of language use. The chief constraint is the perpetual battle against the pressures of time and space. Only those who have tried to write something for a newspaper know just how crippling these pressures can be. They are absolutes. To fit a column, 20 words may need to be cut. There is no argument. If the writer of the original material does not meet the demand, someone else higher up the editorial chain of command will do it instead. Nothing is sacrosanct. Even a letter to the editor can be chopped in half. And there is no comeback. The editor’s decision is final. There is also the constraint imposed by a favoured conception of audience – an awareness of what ‘the readership’ wants. This applies to everything, from the initial judgment about what should be reported to the final decisions about exactly how much should be said about it, where in the medium it should appear, and how it should be written. The finished product can differ greatly from what is first submitted. Very famous reporters may see their piece appear more or less as they wrote it. But an average news report is the product of many hands, hence the so-called shared authorship style of news reports, which suggests their reliance on preferred forms of expression, their lack of stylistic idiosyncrasy (even in the reports of named journalists), and their consistency of style over long periods of time. Once a newspaper has opted for a particular style, it tends to stay with it, and imposes it vigorously on its material. It is not difficult to identify certain features which characterize certain newspapers. That is why it is possible to parody them so easily.
2.2. A kind of information conveyedThe main function of a news report is to provide a matter-of-fact, objective information about an event which has recently taken place (here a student is expected to specify which event it is). As for the author’s attitude to the event described, it is that of a detached, unbiased observer who informs the reader without giving his/her assessment, appraisal of the facts described and without commenting upon them.
2.3. The arrangement (layout) of the information conveyedA news report has to convey a good deal of information in the most readable and readily interesting way, so one of the consequences is a clear and attractive topography, i.e. layout of the reading matter usually adopted, with careful arrangement into narrow columns, and the use of different sizes of type, for the main headlines, the subheadings, and sometimes even in the body of the news item itself. Usually a major news story covers the main topic of the day and has a splash (banner) headline, and almost always an arresting photograph. All this helps to attract the casual reader’s attention and guide it rapidly through the matter on the page. The matter itself tends to be split up – especially at the beginning – into a large number of crisp, short paragraphs, frequently consisting of only a single sentence (a complex or a compound or a complex-compound one). The connection between paragraphs is made as smooth as possible due to various adverbial connectives (conjunctions, connective words, parentheses etc.), so that the reader, when attracted, is led quickly and easily into the rest of the report. One of the characteristic features of a news report composition is the presence of the so-called lead which coincides with the first one-sentence physical paragraph comprising answers to the five w-and-h-questions (who-what-why-how-where-when) worked out by journalistic practice, e.g. Dereck Heath, 43, left Falmouth for the third time in his attempt to cross the Atlantic in a 12 ft dinghy yesterday. (Daily Worker)
2.4. Linguostylistic characteristics of a news report2.4.1. Lexical peculiarities. Since the principle function of a news report is an informative one and since a great deal of news reporting has to be written very hastily and packed into a limited amount of space, reporters have little opportunity to indulge in their own stylistic preferences, and come to rely upon a well-tried range of stereotyped, clichéd forms of expression. This accounts for the fact that the bulk of the vocabulary used in a news report is stylistically neutral and common literary. But apart from this, news reporting has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of: - special political and economic terms, e.g. constitution, president, apartheid, by-election, General Assembly, gross output, per capita production etc. - non-term political vocabulary, e.g. public, people, progressive, nation-wide, unity, peace. A characteristic feature of political vocabulary is that the borderline between terms and non-terms is less distinct than in the vocabulary of other special fields. The semantic structure of some words comprises both terms and non-terms, e.g. nation, crisis, agreement, member, representative, leader. - newspaper clichés, i.e. stereotyped expressions, commonplace phrases familiar to the reader, phraseological units, e.g. vital issue, pressing problem, well-informed sources, danger of war, to escalate a war, war hysteria, overwhelming majority, amid stormy applause etc. Clichés more than anything else reflect the traditional manner of expression in newspaper writing. They are commonly looked upon as a defect of style. Indeed, some clichés, especially those based on trite images (e.g. captains of industry, pillars of society, bulwark of civilization) are pompous and hackneyed, others, such as welfare state, affluent society, are false and misleading. But nevertheless, clichés are indispensable in newspaper style: they prompt the necessary associations and prevent ambiguity and misunderstanding. - abbreviations. News items, press reports and headlines abound in abbreviations of various kinds. Among them abbreviated terms — names of organizations, public and state bodies, political associations, industrial and other companies, various offices, etc. known by their initials are very common, e.g. UNO (United Nations Organization), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), EEC (European Economic Community), FO (Foreign Office), EU (European Union), CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), ICPO INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organization), MP (Member of Parliament (or Military Police)), COE (Council of Europe), IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), IMF (International Monetary Fund), UNSC (United Nations Security Council), WPC (World Peace Council), WHO (World Health Organization) etc. The widespread use of initials in newspaper language has been expanded to the names of persons constantly in the public eye and we find references to LBJ (Lyndon Baines Johnson), JFK (John Fitzgerald Kennedy). - neologisms are very common in newspaper vocabulary. The newspaper is very quick to react to any new development in the life of society, in science and technology. Hence, neologisms make their way into the language of the newspaper very easily and often even spring up on newspaper pages, e.g., sputnik, to outsputnik, lunik, a splash-down (the act of bringing a spacecraft to a water surface), a teach-in (a form of campaigning through heated political discussion), backlash, or white backlash (a violent reaction of American racists to the Negroes' struggle for civil rights), frontlash (a vigorous anti-racist movement), stop-go policies (contradictory, indecisive and inefficient policies), teledish (a dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite TV transmissions), graphene (an allotrope of carbon, whose structure is one-atom-thick planar sheets of sp2-bonded carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice), Geiger counter (a device for detecting radioactivity), hybrid car (a car with a gasoline engine and an electric motor, each of which can propel it), bioterrorism (the use of infectious agents or other harmful biological or biochemical substances as weapons of terrorism). - As has already been said above the vocabulary of a news report is for the most part devoid of emotional colouring. Some papers, however, tend to introduce emotionally coloured lexical units instead of their neutral synonyms, presumably because they are more expressive and more vividly descriptive, e.g. ‘boom’ instead of ‘increase’ and words in their figurative meaning, e.g. ‘boost’ in the meaning ‘help’, ‘clash’ in the meaning ‘dispute’. 2.4.2. Grammatical peculiarities. As the reporter has to be brief and to cram as much material as possible into the space allotted, a news report is characterized by a peculiar composition and by a certain syntactic structure of sentences. 2.4.2.1. The initial physical paragraph usually consisting of a single sentence the so-called ‘lead’ which both summarizes and begins to tell the story has a more or less fixed word-order. Journalistic practice has developed what is called the ‘five-w-and-h-pattern rule’ (who-what-why-how-where-when). In terms of grammar this fixed sentence structure may be expressed in the following manner: Subject – Predicate (+ Object) – Adverbial Modifier of Place – Adverbial Modifier of Time, e.g. ‘A neighbour’s peep through a letter box lead to the finding of a woman dead from gas and two others semiconscious in a block of council flats in Eccles New Road, Salford, Lancs., yesterday’. (The Guardian) 2.4.2.2. The size of a news report varies from one sentence to several, rather short paragraphs. Generally, the shorter the news item, the more complex its syntactic structure is. The following grammatical parameters are typical of a news report: - complex sentences with a developed system of clauses, e.g. ‘A Tory MP last night hit out at a Commons report which suggested there may be serious social unrest in Wales because of heavy unemployment’. (News of the World) - verbal constructions (infinitive, participial, gerundial) and verbal noun constructions, e.g. ‘Unions representing engineering and technical workers at British Leyland yesterday threatened industrial action to halt the planned axing of over 4,000 white collar jobs’. (Morning Star) - syntactical complexes, especially the Nominative-with-the Infinitive. These predicative constructions are largely used to avoid mentioning the source of information or to shun responsibility for the facts reported, e.g. ‘A large chunk of ice, believed to have fallen from an aircraft, crashed through the roof, then through the bedroom ceiling of a house in Leamington, Warwickshire, yesterday’. (Daily Express) - attributive noun groups are another powerful means of effecting brevity in news items, e.g. ‘heart swap patient’ (Morning Star), ‘the national income and expenditure figures’ (The Times), ‘Labour backbench decision’. (Morning Star) There are some other salient tendencies in news reporting: - a wide use of dashes which seem to have a sharper effect of separating words and phrases from neighbouring text than do commas. Dashes have different functions in a news report: they may add on an afterthought or enclose a parenthetic phrase, e.g. ‘The committee – which was investigating the working of the 1969 Children and Young Persons Act – said that some school children …’ (Morning Star) - a habit of news reporters to include a lot of information about the participants of the events described. They are categorized, their names are usually preceded and modified by such general terms, as owner, chief, businessman, prisoner, official, e.g. Mr. Carpenter, Chief Secretary to the Treasury; and adjectives, e.g. handsome French singer Bruno; twice-divorced, blue-eyed, blond actress Sally Smith; - the age of a person is often given in a characteristic way, where the numeral which modifies the proper noun, follows it, e.g. Mr. Green, 43; - an extensive use of quotations which are introduced both quite directly, explicitly, e.g. N. said that or indirectly without quotation marks or somehow else. - a characteristic trick of reporters is to begin a sentence with an adverbial phrase comprising Participle II, followed by some kind of complement, e.g. interviewed at the scene last night; asked about…; when told of…; - explicitly expressed time and place adverbials, e.g. in Paris yesterday, facts and figures,e.g.66 people were killed in a bomb blast…; - news reporting has developed some new sentence patterns not typical of other styles, firstly, it refers to the position of the adverbial modifier of definite time, e.g. ‘Mystery last night surrounded the whereabouts of a girl who may never know how rich she could be.’ (Sunday Mirror); - occasional violation of the Sequence of Tenses rule, e.g. ‘It was announced in Cairo yesterday that elections will be held … (Daily Worker)’; - the use of the predicate verb of saying before the subject, i.e. the inverted word-order, e.g. said Mr. Green. What is ordinarily looked upon as a violation of grammar rules in any other kind of writing appears to be a functional peculiarity of newspaper style.
2.5. Linguistic peculiarities of a headline2.5.1. The headline (a title given to a news item or an article) is a dependent form of newspaper writing. It is, in fact, a part of a larger whole. The main function of the headline is to inform the reader briefly of what the text that follows is about. But apart from this, headlines often contain elements of appraisal, i.e. they show the reporter’s or the paper’s attitude to the facts reported. As the headline in British and American newspapers is an important carrier of both information and appraisal, editors give it special attention, admitting that few people read beyond the headline, or at best the lead. To lure the reader into going through the whole of the item or at least a greater pert of it, takes a lot of skill and ingenuity on the part of the headline writer. English headlines are short and catching, they ‘compact’ the gist of news stories into a few eye-snaring words. A skillfully turned headline tells a story, or enough of it, to arouse or satisfy the reader’s curiosity. Its telegraphic style is probably the best known distinctive feature. The practices of headline writing are different with different newspapers. In many papers there is, as a rule, but one headline to a news item, whereas such papers as The Times, the Guardian, The New York Times often carry a news item or an article with two or three headlines, and sometimes as many as four. Such group headlines are almost a summary of the information contained in the news item. 2.5.2. The functions and the peculiar nature of English headlines predetermine the choice of the language means used. The vocabulary peculiarities typical of brief news items and news reports are commonly found in headlines. But headlines also abound in emotionally coloured words, which are more descriptive as the italicized words in the following: End this Bloodbath (Morning Star), Crazy Waste of Youth (Reynolds News) No Wonder Housewives are Pleading: ‘HELP’ (Daily Mirror). Some words used in headlines are more economical as they are shorter, e.g. ‘aid’ and ‘deal’ are more economical than ‘assistance’ and ‘agreement’, respectively. Here are some other most commonly used headline words:
To attract the reader’s attention, headline writers often resort to a deliberate breaking-up of set-expressions, in particular, fused set-expressions, and deformation of special terms, a stylistic device capable of producing a strong emotional effect, e. g. Cakes and Bitter Ale (The Sunday Times), Conspirator-in-chief Still at Large (The Guardian). Compare respectively the allusive set-expression cakes and ale, and the term commander-in-chief. Other stylistic devices, as for example, the pun (e.g. ‘And what about Watt’ – The Observer), alliteration (e.g. Miller in Maniac Mood – The Observer), etc. are also popular. 2.5.3. Grammatically headlines are characterized by the tendency to eliminate all elements that can be done without. It results in the so-called ‘abbreviated grammar’ style and elliptical sentence structure. This peculiar brevity of expression may take a variety of forms, e.g.: - the form of an elliptical sentence: a) with an auxiliary verb omitted, e.g. ‘Initial report not expected until June!’ (The Guardian), ‘Yachtsman spotted’ (Morning Star); b) with subject omitted, e.g. ‘Will win’ (Morning Star); c) with the subject and part of the predicate omitted, e.g. ‘Off to the sun’ (Morning Star), ‘Still in danger’ (The Guardian) - the form of a simple sentence with articles omitted, e.g. ‘Frogman finds girl in river’ (Daily Worker), ‘Blaze kills 15 at Party’ (Morning Star). Articles are very frequently omitted in all types of headlines. Syntactically headlines are characterized by different patterns of sentences and phrases: - full declarative sentences, e.g. ‘They Threw Bombs on Gipsy Sites’ (Morning Star), ‘Allies Now Look to London’ (The Times) - interrogative sentences, e.g. ‘Do you love war?’ (Daily World), ‘Who has never had it so good?’ (Morning Star) - nominative sentences, e. g. ‘Gloomy Sunday’ (The Guardian), ‘Atlantic sea traffic’ (The Times), ‘Union peace plan for girling stewards’ (Morning Star) - phrases with verbals – infinitive, participial and gerundial, e.g. ‘To get US aid’ (Morning Star), ‘Keeping prices down’ (The Times), ‘Preparing reply on cold war’ (Morning Star), ‘Speaking parts’ (The Sunday Times) - strings of three, four or more nouns in the attributive function before the head noun, the so-called‘heavy premodification’ structures,e.g. Furniture Factory Pay Cut Riot. - questions in the form of statements, e.g. ‘The worse the better?’ (Daily World), ‘Growl now, smile later?’ (The Observer) - complex sentences, e.g. ‘Senate Panel Hears Board of Military Experts Who Favoured Losing Bidder’ (The New York Times), ‘Army Says It Gave LSD to Unknown Gls’ (The International Herald Tribune) - headlines including Direct Speech a) introduced by a full sentence, e.g. Prince Charles says, ‘I was not in trouble’ (The Guardian), b) introduced elliptically, e.g. ‘The Queen: “My deep distress”’ (The Times). - the use of the Present tense form to denote an action which actually happened in the past. - the use of an infinitive form with ‘to’ to express a future action, e.g. ‘MP to Open Health Center’ – means that a member of Parliament is going to open a Health Center. - the use of the Past Simple for reports in some court cases. Though the above-listed patterns are the most typical ones they do not cover all the variety in headline structure.
III. A feature articleGeneral Notes3.1. General peculiarities of a feature articleA feature article is another newspaper genre usually found on the inside pages of a newspaper. Feature articles (or features) are very diverse in their subject-matter and cover a wide range of topics. Sometimes they relate to events currently in the news, but most often they concentrate on some single topic which is of perennial interest to public at large; and sometimes it seems that journalists actually seek to create interest in the topics they have chosen by writing about them. Feature articles usually carry a considerable amount of information, but the impression one gets is that the author’s main concern is to influence the reader by giving subjective interpretation and assessment of certain facts, commenting upon them and thus appealing not only to the reader’s mind, but to his / her feelings, as well. As one would expect, the balance between information and evaluation varies widely from newspaper to newspaper, and from article to article.
3.2. Linguostylistic peculiarities of a feature article3.2.1. Generally speaking, the language found in a feature article has much in common with that used for news reporting and it is quite natural, since both genres belong to the newspaper style and are written by journalists. For example, although feature articles do not usually contain such a large amount of quoted material as is found in many news reports, the ways of introducing it are often very similar. Dashes, also, are rather freely used, and for similar purposes. 3.2.2. There are, however, certain differences of style both on the structural-grammatical and lexical levels. Structurally feature articles are characterized by: - a different size of paragraphs: very short paragraphs, typical of a news report, are unlikely in a feature article, where they are usually rather long; - rather a wide use of rhetorical questions which would be absolutely unlikely in a news report. Rhetorical questions are usually addressed to the reader in a attempt to make him / her feel involved in a way that would be inappropriate for a news report; - the use of certain grammatical forms and constructions suggesting spoken English style:e.g. contracted verb forms like it’s, I’ve, he’s etc.; - the use of a successive Object Subordinate Clause introduced by the conjunction ‘that’ as a separate sentence whichsounds more of an afterthought and produces an impression of colloquial speech. 3.2.3. Since journalists can usually spend more time on writing a feature article than they can do on news reports, and also, probably, have rather more space at their disposal, they are able to give a freer reign to their own individual stylistic tastes. Hence, rather an extensive use of emotionally-coloured language elements. In addition to the vocabulary typical of news reports – newspaper clichés and other stereotyped forms of expression – a feature article is characterized by a wide use of: - colloquial words and word-combinations; - slangisms and professionalisms; - highly emotive and thoroughly evaluative words; - a deliberate combination of different strata of vocabulary, e.g. colloquial and bookish words, which enhances the emotional effect; - trite stylistic devices, especially, metaphors and epithets, e.g. a price explosion, crazy policies, international climate; - traditional periphrases, e.g. Wall Street (American financial circles), Downing Street (The British Government), Fleet Street (the London press) etc. - But genuine stylistic means are also frequently used, which helps the writer to bring his / her idea home to the reader through the associations that genuine imagery arouses. Practically any stylistic device may be found in a feature article, and when aptly used, such devices prove to be powerful means of appraisal, of expressing a personal attitude to the matter in hand, of exercising the necessary emotional effect on the reader. Note the following example: “That this huge slice of industry should become a battleground in which public cash is used as a whip with which to lash workers is a scandal. …Yet it is the workers who are being served up as the lambs for sacrifice, and it is public money that is used to stoke the fires of the sacrificial pyre”. (Morning Star) The stylistic effect of these sustained similes is essentially satirical. A similar effect is frequently achieved by the use of metaphor, irony, the breaking-up of set-expressions, the stylistic use of word-building, allusions, etc. Two types of allusions can be distinguished in newspaper article writing: a. allusions to political and other facts of the day which are indispensable and have no stylistic value, and b. historical, literary and biblical allusions which are often used to create a specific stylistic effect, largely – satirical. The emotional force of expression is often enhanced by the use of various syntactical stylistic devices: a. parallel constructions, b. various types of repetition, rhetorical questions and other syntactical means. Yet, the role of expressive language means and stylistic devices in a feature article should not be overestimated. They stand out against the essentially neutral background. Generally speaking, tradition reigns supreme in the language of the newspaper as a separate functional variety of the English language. Individual forms of expression and fresh genuine stylistic means are comparatively rare even in such ‘borderline’ newspaper genres as a feature article and an editorial or a leading article, so, whatever stylistically original lingual means one may encounter in certain newspaper publications, they cannot compete with the essentially traditional mode of expression characteristic of newspaper English in general.
Assignements for self-controlMake sure you can answer these questions1. Comment on the chief constraints in the area of news reporting. 2. What does the so-called shared authorship style of newspapers suggest? 3. What kind of information does a news report carry and what is the manner in which the reporter conveys it? 4. What are the most characteristic features of the reading matter layout in a classical news report? 5. What lexical peculiarities of a news report result from the principal communicative function of this newspaper genre and the pressures of time, space and the shared authorship style? 6. Enumerate the main grammatical parameters typical of a news report. 7. What lexical peculiarities of English headlines serve to attract the readers’ attention and to lure them into going through the whole of the newspaper item or, at least, a greater part of it? 8. What manifestations of the so-called “abbreviated grammar style” is the headline characterized by? 9. How does a feature article differ from a news report in terms of the information conveyed and the author’s attitude towards its presentation? 10. Enumerate those structural-grammatical peculiarities of a feature article which distinguish it from a news report.
Unit 1. Blaze at charity bonfire damages warehousesTwo firemen were overcome by fumes and several bystanders slightly injured in a fire last night at York1), North Yorkshire. The blaze was caused when flames from a Guy Fawkes Night bonfire 2) organized in support of local charities 3)spread to nearby warehouses. Firemen battled against the flames for several hours before getting them under control, and at one time there were ten fire-engines in attendance at the blaze − the largest in this part of North Yorkshire for more than five years. Strong winds hampered operations, and at first there were fears that showers of sparks might reach other warehouses some distance away, one of which − a paint-store − could have exploded. But firemen succeeded in confining the outbreak to warehouses containing less inflammable materials. The injured were allowed home after treatment at the local hospital, but one of the firemen was detained for observation. Early this morning a dense pall of smoke hung over the warehouses while firemen continued to damp down the still smouldering debris. Damage According to the owner of the warehouses, local builder's merchant Mr. Arthur Peel, damage was difficult to estimate at this stage. “The warehouses worst affected contained a large quantity of timber and building materials”, said Mr. Peel. “It seems unlikely that much of this can have escaped damage, in which case the cost is likely to run into several thousand pounds”. Interviewed at the scene last night, the Chief of the York fire-brigade, 42-year old Mr. Fred Banks, who is responsible for bonfire-night safety measures in the district, said that he thought the fire was “very unfortunate”. The organizers had consulted him about the safety of the site, and he had approved it, “provided the bonfire itself was kept in the centre of the site, and that only wood was burnt on it”. It seemed, however, that someone had thrown paper on to the fire, and the strong wind had carried some of this to the warehouses. There had also been reports that rival gangs of youths had been seen throwing fireworks 4) at each other near the warehouses, and this might also have had something to do with the fire starting. Asked about the advisability of allowing a fire at all so near to buildings, Mr. Banks pointed out that there was no other open space available, and that the risk involved was negligible − given that the safety regulations would be “strictly observed”. When told of the fire chief’s remarks, the bonfire’s organizer, local businessman Mr. Ron Green, denied than anyone had put paper on the bonfire.
Explanatory Notes 1) York – a town in North Yorkshire, England. 2) a Guy Fawkes Night bonfire – one of the most regularly observed national customs in Great Britain is to light bonfires on November 5th − the anniversary of a plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament. Guy Fawkes was one of the conspirators, hence the name of the event, which is also known as bonfire-night. 3) in support of local charities – these bonfires are usually for private entertainment, but occasionally they are organized on a larger scale and admission fees are charged as a means of collecting money for charity. 4) fireworks – a regular feature of bonfire night celebrations.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1. During what social event did the fire take place? What caused it? 2. For what purpose was the bonfire organized? 3. Were there any people injured in the fire? If so, what were they and how severe were the injuries that the victims of the fire received? 4. How did the firemen assess the scale of the fire? 5. How many fire-engines were there in attendance at the fire? 6. How quickly did the fire-brigade manage to get the fire under control? 7. What factors hampered extinguishing the fire? 8. What kind of medical help did the injured get? 9. What was the situation on the site the morning after the fire like? 10. Who are the organizers of the Bonfire Night celebration and what are they responsible for? 11. Why is it difficult to estimate the financial damage caused by the fire, according to the owner of the warehouses? 12. How severely were the materials kept at the stores damaged? 13. What is the Chief of the York fire-brigade’s reaction to the event? 14. How does the Chief of the fire-brigade comment on the advisability of the bonfire near the warehouses? What is his assessment of the degree of the risk involved? 15. What is the opinion of the fire organizer as for the possibility of the safety measures violation? 16. What versions of the fire causes are put forward by the people interviewed? In what way could the actions of the youth gangs have caused the fire? What violation of the safety rules might have had something to do with the fire starting?
Section 2. Analysis of Genre Peculiarities of a Newspaper Publication2.1. 1. What kind of information is conveyed by the newspaper writing? Specify what event is in the focus of the newspaper publication. 2. Can the author’s attitude to the information conveyed be characterized as that of a detached, unbiased observer? 3. Does the reporter project himself in the publication? 2.2. 1. Can the initial physical paragraph be considered a lead? Is it characterized by a fixed word-order providing answers to the five traditional w-and-h journalistic questions? 2. Is the paragraphing of the text typical of the general arrangement of a news report reading matter? Comment on the syntactical structure of the sentences constituting the paragraphs. 3. How is the logical connection between the paragraphs achieved? Comment on the role of different adverbial connectors. 4. What lexical peculiarities is the headline characterized by? Why is the noun “blaze” preferred to its neutral equivalent “fire”? 5. Characterize the grammatical peculiarities of the headline and the subheading commenting on their “abbreviated grammar” style. Reconstruct their full grammatical versions. 6. Comment on the use of tense-forms in the headline. 2.3. 1. What is the stylistic value of the bulk of the vocabulary used in the newspaper writing in question? 2. Pick out special economic terms and account for their use in the publication. 3. Is the text characterized by the use of terms pertaining to other spheres of knowledge? 4. Is the publication illustrative of non-term political vocabulary? 5. Pick out clichéd, stereotyped word-combinations typical of a current newspaper style. Find the corresponding clichés in the Ukrainian language. Remember that their translation must be dynamic. 6. Is the text characterized by an extensive use of abbreviations? 7. Are there any cases of neologisms? 8. Find examples of a) more expressive and more vividly descriptive lexical units; b) vocabulary units used in their figurative meaning and comment on the stylistic effect achieved. 9. Comment on the stylistic difference between the pairs: a) run into – amount to; b) damp down – extinguish. 10. What types of sentences prevail in the text? Does their structure reveal the grammatical parameters typical of a news report? 11. Is the use of dashes characteristic of the publication in question? If so, find examples of such and say what functions they perform. 12. What characteristic feature of news reporting is observed in introducing the participants of the events described? 13. Is the text abundant in the use of quotations? Are they introduced directly or indirectly? 14. Is the violation of a normal word-order in the phrase said Mr. Green characteristic of news reporting style? 15. Find instances of a characteristic trick of journalists to begin an adverbial phrase with Participle II and comment on their structure. 16. Make a conclusion concerning the genre of the newspaper writing under analysis. ª Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition1. What type of information is the publication in question characterized by? 2. Divide the factual information of the extract into conceptual paragraphs. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each paragraph. 3. Are there any facts of socio-historic and/or cultural character relevant in terms of the category of presupposition? Comment on the background information underlying them, for this purpose answer the questions that follow. 4. What historical events is the city of York associated with? 5. What do you know about the tradition to celebrate Guy Fawkes Night in Great Britain? When is the holiday held? What historical event does the celebration stem from? What are the festive procedures and activities? 3.2. The Category of Cohesion1. What words can be treated as the main key-word holding together the logico-semantic wholeness of the article? Explain your choice. In what way does their recurrence contribute to the integrity of the text? 2. What words and word-combinations are logically connected with the key-word “fire” and form the corresponding thematic group? 3. What role do the terms of economics play in the lexical cohesion of the text? 4. Distinguish thematic groups of words and word-combinations united by the common notion of: - people’s professions and occupations - places and locations - medical treatment - inflammable materials, and others. 5. Find lexical units pertaining to the lexico-semantic groups of a) verbs of speaking; b) verbs of firemen’s activities connected with the fire extinguishing. 6. Comment on the role synonyms proper and contextual synonyms play in the lexical cohesion of the text. 7. How does antonymy (both antonyms proper and contextual ones) reinforce the lexical cohesion of the newspaper writing? 8. How do word-building means, namely affixation and compounding, reinforce the lexical cohesion of the text? 9. Through what associative-semantic strings of words and word-combinations is the lexical cohesion of the text also achieved? 10. How do means of supraphrasal cohesion, i.e. different adverbial connectors, contribute to the perception of the newspaper writing as a logico-semantic whole? Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the newspaper text “Blaze at charity bonfire damages warehouses”.
Unit 2. Gang arrested over plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham
Four men and a woman were arrested last week after an alleged £5m plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham 1), one-half of Britain's highest profile couple. The five Albanians and Romanians were arrested by officers from the Metropolitan Police's Serious and Organised Crime branch in London and Surrey 2). They were being held in connection with offences of theft and conspiracy to kidnap. Ms 3) Beckham, 28, was told of the plot. She then watched her husband, David 4), play for Manchester United against Southampton, but did not tell him until after the game. "It's terrifying to think that someone would want to do that to you and your children. I'm in absolute and total shock," she said. The alleged plot came to light after two reporters from the News of the World infiltrated the gang. Stuart Kuttner, managing editor of the Sunday newspaper, said. "About six weeks ago we were alerted that a gang of Romanian and Albanian criminals, or people of that persuasion, had a plan to try to kidnap Victoria Beckham and hoped to collect a ransom of £5m." According to the newspaper, the gang planned to use a spray to sedate Ms Beckham in her car as it pulled out of the drive of the couple's mansion in Hertfordshire. She would then have been held for ransom in a house in south London, where a room had been prepared. If she had had her sons, Brooklyn and Romeo, with her at the time, they would have been held as well. Two years ago police uncovered a plan to kidnap Ms Beckham and her first son Brooklyn, now three.
The Beckhams, who are known universally as "Posh and Becks" – Victoria rose to stardom in the Spice Girls pop group 5) – have become Britain's most photographed couple since they met at a football match in 1997. The Observer
Explanatory Notes 1) Victoria Beckham – an English singer, songwriter, dancer, fashion designer, author, businesswoman, actress and model. Mrs Beckham first came to notoriety as Busty-Posh Spice in the UK all-girl band the Spice Girls, which has since found its place in history as the luckiest band ever. 2) The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) is the name currently used by the territorial police force which is responsible for Greater London (the administrative structure of Greater London includes 33 separate boroughs, 14 of which constitute Inner London and the others Outer London), the City of London being the responsibility of the City of London Police. It is commonly referred to as the Metropolitan Police, and informally as "the Met" or sometimes MP. The MPS is the largest force in the United Kingdom. The headquarters is at New Scotland Yard in Westminster, commonly known as Scotland Yard. 3) Ms isused as a formal title in front of the name of a woman, whether she is married or not, when talking to her or about her. Mrs is usually only used for married women who have the same family name as their husband. Miss is used as a title for unmarried women, and sometimes married women who did not change their name when they got married, but many women now consider this old-fashioned and prefer Ms as their title. 4) David Beckham – English football player, who gained international fame for his onfield play as well as for his highly publicized personal life. He is an established member of the England national team. Twice runner-up for FIFA World Player of the Year and in 2004 the world's highest-paid footballer. With such global recognition he has become an elite advertising brand and a top fashion icon. 4) The Spice Girls were an English girl group formed in 1994. They consisted of Victoria Beckham (née Adams), Melanie Brown, Emma Bunton, Melanie Chisholm, and Geri Halliwell. They are considered to be the most successful girl group of all time. They have sold 65 million records worldwide with only four albums and eleven singles, making them the most successful British band since The Beatles and the best selling girl group of all time. They were the biggest cultural icons of the 1990s, according to a survey carried out by Trivial Pursuit, winning by 80 percent in a poll of 1,000 people carried out for the board game, stating that "Girl Power" defined the decade. In June 1998, Geri Halliwell left the group in the middle of numerous rumours. The four remaining members released the third album, but went their separate ways in late 2000 to focus on their solo careers.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1. What event is in the focus of the newspaper writing? 2. Who are the organisers of the plot of kidnapping? What information about the plot organisers is already known to the police? Who was the victim? What was the purpose of the alleged plot? 3. What crimes are the organisers of the plot charged with? 4. Why didn’t Victoria Beckham share the news about the plot of kidnapping with her husband shortly after she had been informed of that? 5. How did Ms Beckham comment on her emotional state when she got to know about the plot? 6. In what way did the reporters of the News of the World facilitate uncovering of the alleged plot? 7. What details of Victoria Beckham’s kidnapping plot were revealed by the Sunday newspaper? 8. Was it the first attempt of kidnapping the famous couple or their children? 9. What are the Beckhams famous for?
Section 2. Analysis of Genre Peculiarities of a Newspaper Publication2.1. 1. What kind of information is conveyed by the newspaper writing? Specify the event that is in the focus of the publication. 2. Can the author’s position be characterised as that of a detached, unbiased observer? 2.2. 1. Can the initial physical paragraph be regarded as a lead? Is the ‘five-w-and-h-pattern rule’ observed here? 2. How is the reading matter of the newspaper writing in question arranged? Comment on the size of the paragraphs and the syntactic structure of the sentences constituting them. 3. How is the logical connection between the paragraphs achieved to lead the reader easily and quickly through the reading matter? 4. Can the headline be regarded as an instance of the “abbreviated grammar” style? Reconstruct its full grammatical version. 2.3. 1. Is the text characterised by a wide use of dashes? What functions do they perform? 2. Does the text contain much quoted material? Is it introduced directly or indirectly? 3. What is the stylistic value of the bulk of the vocabulary used in the newspaper writing in question? 4. What role does the use of the Superlative Degree play in presenting the image of the Beckhams? 5. Pick out clichéd, stereotyped word-combinations typical of a current newspaper style. 6. What types of sentences prevail in the text? Does their structure reveal the grammatical parameters typical of a news report? 7. Make a conclusion concerning the genre of the newspaper writing under analysis.
Section 3. Assignments for Text Analysis in Terms of Textlinguistic Categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition 1. What type of information is the publication in question charcaterised by? 2. Divide the factual information of the extract into conceptual paragraphs. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each paragraph. 3. Find the facts of social and cultural character (if any) relevant in terms of the category of presupposition commenting on the background information underlying them. For this purpose answer the questions that follow. 4. What spheres of the social and cultural life of the British society are Victoria and David Beckham involved in? 5. What administrative district of England is the Metropolitan Police Service responsible for? 3.2. The Category of Cohesion 1. What word can be treated as the main key-word holding together the logical-semantic wholeness of the article? Explain your choice. In what way does its recurrence contribute to the integrity of the text? 2. What words and word-combinations are logically connected with the key-word and form the corresponding thematic group? 3. Pick out words and word-combinations pertaining to the thematic groups united by the common notions of: - newspaper - family relations - fame and popularity - football 4. What lexico-semantic groups of words are conducive to the semantic wholeness of the article? 5. Comment on the role synonyms proper and contextual synonyms play in the lexical cohesion of the text. 6. How does antonymy (both antonyms proper and contextual ones) reinforce the lexical cohesion of the newspaper writing? 7. Through what associative-semantic strings of words and word-combinations is the lexical cohesion of the text also achieved? Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the newspaper text “Gang arrested over plot to kidnap Victoria Beckham”.
Unit 3. Blunkett Resigns over Visa for NannyBudd report rejects cover-up, but finds that email helped fast-track application ------------------------------------------------------ Blunkett1) resigns over visa for nanny
Michael White and David Hencke
Whitehall 2) breathed a sigh of relief this week after Sir Alan Budd 3) cleared civil servants of covering up events surrounding the fast-tracking of a visa application for the nanny of David Blankett’s then lover, Kimberly Quinn. Mr Blunkett resigned as home secretary last week, making a tearful exit from government, after it became clear that Sir Alan’s report would find that staff in his office had helped speed up the visa application. Four days after Mr Blunkett resigned following the emergence of an email that proved his office had been in contact with the immigration and nationality directorate (IND) over the visa, the increasingly public row between him and Mrs Quinn continued to dominate the weekend papers. Friends of David Blunkett accused Sir Alan of being “mesmerized” by his former lover into accepting her account, while friends of Mrs Quinn insisted she had not wished to bring him down but simply for him to stay out of her life. The saga took a further twist when it was revealed that Mrs Quinn was also having an affair with Simon Hoggart, the Guardian’s political sketch writer and the Spectator’s wine correspondent. Sir Alan found that an email sent from the home office had the effect of speeding up the visa for the Filipina nanny, Leoncia Casalme, to stay in Britain indefinitely. On Tuesday the parliamentary commissioner for standards in public life, Sir Philip Mawer, upheld a complaint against Mr Blunkett that he had misused two first-class rail tickets, intended for MPs’ wives, when he gave them to Mrs Quinn. Mr Blunkett, who has already repaid £179 to cover the cost of the train journeys, immediately apologised for his mistake. Both Mr Blunkett and Mrs Quinn were said to be suffering from nervous exhaustion after several weeks in the glare of the media headlights. Both face a further difficult day on Thursday when the next stage of Mr Blunkett’s case for access to her two-year-old boy reaches the high court. He claims to be the father of the child from his three-year relationship with the publisher of the Spectator. Mrs Quinn, 43, heavily pregnant with a second child, left hospital last Friday after after 18 days of treatment for complications that her husband, Stephen, said had been brought on by stress. Mr Blunkett’s resignation came as a dramatic end to one of the most tenacious political careers. As a child born blind in a poor home, he rose to hold one of the most important and demanding offices in the state – and lost it for love.
Though the cabinet’s combative education secretary, Charles Clarke, was almost immediately promoted to fill his shoes, MPs on all sides at Westminster 4) were actually aware that the prime minister had also sustained a blow. Mr Blair 5) has lost another close political and personal ally soon after accepting that Peter Mandelson 6), now an EU commissioner, could not return to cabinet for a third time, almost certainly hastening the day when he will hand over power to Gordon Brown 7). But Blair loyalists dominated the promotions prompted by Mr Blunkett’s departure. The former Guardian journalist Ruth Kelly, 36, deputy to the Blairite Alan Milburn, took over as education secretary to become the sixth woman cabinet minister and trusted former No 10 8) adviser, moved to take her job in the Blair campaign entourage. In emotional TV interviews after the news was confirmed, Mr Blunkett made clear that he had risked – and halted – his career for love. He said: “I misunderstood what we had. I misunderstood that someone [Mrs Quinn] could do this, not just to me, but to a little one as well” in the couple’s fight over paternity and custody of what he called “that little lad” he loved.
The Guardian Weekly December 24, 2004 – January 6, 2005
Explanatory Notes 1) David Blunkett (born 6 June 1947) is a British Labour politician, who has been the Member of Parliament for Sheffield Brightside since 1987. Suffering from blindness since birth, and coming from a poor family in one of Sheffield's most deprived districts, he rose to become Education Secretary in Tony Blair's first Cabinet following Labour's victory in the 1997 general election. He gave up this position to become Home Secretary following the 2001 general election, a position he held until 2004, when he was forced to resign following the revelation of an affair Blunkett was having while serving as Home Secretary. Following the 2005 general election, he was appointed Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, but was again forced to resign later that year following the release of a series of reports about his external business interests during his brief time outside the cabinet. 2) Whitehall - a road in Westminster in London, England. Recognised as the centre of HM Government, the road is lined with government departments/ministries. "Whitehall" is therefore also frequently used as a metonym for overall UK governmental administration, as well as being a geographic name for the surrounding district. 3) Sir Alan Peter Budd (born 16 November 1937) is a prominent British economist, who was a founding member of the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) in 1997 and a chief economic adviser to the Treasury between 1991 and 1997. Sir Alan has appeared more in the public eye, however, in fulfilling various government appointments. He gained an even higher public profile when in 2004 he was asked to investigate the circumstances surrounding the issue of a visa to the nanny of Kimberly Quinn, the lover of David Blunkett, the then Home Secretary. 4) Westminster - the name describes the area around Westminster Abbey and Palace of Westminster. It derives from the West Minster, or monastery church, west of the City of London's St Paul's. The area has been the seat of the government of England for almost a thousand years. "Westminster" is thus often used as a metonym for Parliament and the political community of the United Kingdom generally. 5) Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2 May 1997 to 27 June 2007. He had been the Member of Parliament for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007; he resigned from all these positions in June 2007. 6) Peter Benjamin Mandelson, Baron Mandelson, PC (born 21 October 1953) is a British Labour politician who is the current First Secretary of State, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills, President of the Board of Trade and Lord President of the Council. Mandelson served as Member of Parliament for Hartlepool for twelve years (from 1992), a seat he vacated in order to become a European Commissioner (2004–2008). He twice resigned from Tony Blair's government. After his second resignation he served as the European Commissioner for Trade for almost four years. 7) James Gordon Brown (born 20 February 1951) is the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party. Brown became Prime Minister in June 2007, after the resignation of Tony Blair and three days after becoming leader of the governing Labour Party. Immediately before this he had served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Labour government from 1997 to 2007 under Tony Blair. 8) No 10 - 10 Downing Street, the official residence and office of the First Lord of the Treasury and hence Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The headquarters of Her Majesty's Government, it is situated on Downing Street in the City of Westminster in London. Number 10 is perhaps the most famous address in the United Kingdom and one of the most widely recognised houses in the world.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1. What are the participants of the events described? Comment on these people’s positions and their role in the story reported. 2. What made David Blunkett resign as a home secretary last week? 3. What was the contents of the email which preceded Mr Blunkett’s resignation? 4. Did the public row come to an end when David Blunkett left his office? 5. How do Mr Blunkett’s and Mrs Quinn’s friends comment on the conflict in question? 6. What gave the story reported a further twist? 7. What does the complaint upheld by Sir Philip Mawer against Mr Blunkett consist in? 8. In what connection is the sum £179 mentioned? 9. What question is to be regarded by the high court on Thursday? 10. What is the alleged reason for Mrs Quinn’s having been in hospital for 18 days? 11. Why do the reporters claim that Mr Blunkett’s resignation was supposedly a blow for the prime minister Tony Blair? 12. What changes did Blair’s cabinet undergo after Mr Blunkett’s departure? 13. How does Mr Blunkett comment on the situation in the media?
Section 2. Analysis of genre peculiarities of a newspaper publication2.1. 1. What do you know about the newspaper the present publication comes from? What type of press does it belong to? How does the type of the printed media influence the language peculiarities of the present newspaper writing? 2. What kind of information does the newspaper writing convey? Specify what event is in the focus of the publication. 3. What is the authors’ position towards the information imparted? Do they directly project their own assessment of the event described into the text? 2.2. 1. Characterise the composition of the newspaper writing and say whether there is any marker indispensable of a certain newspaper genre in it. 2. What is the function of the lead? How does it reflect the ‘five-w-and-h-pattern rule’? Comment on the fixed syntactical structure of the lead. 3. How does the layout of the written matter help facilitate eliciting the information for an ordinary reader? How many physical paragraphs does the text consist of? What is their syntactical structure? 4. Comment on the grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the headline as a component of the compositional structure of the newspaper writing. What features of the so-called abbreviated grammar style are observed in it? Comment on the use of the tense form in the headline? What is the syntactical pattern of the headline? Reconstruct the full grammatical version of the headline. Which commonly used headline word is found in it? 2.3. 1. How does the primary function of the newspaper writing in question correlate with its general stylistic tone? What is the stylistic value of the bulk of the vocabulary used in the present newspaper writing? 2. Pick out special political and economic terms, if any. Are there any terminological units from other fields of knowledge? Account for their use in the present publication. 3. Find instances of the use of non-term political vocabulary. Is the borderline between political terms and non-terms distinct? 4. How does clichéd, stereotyped manner of presenting information manifest itself in the present text? Pick out clichéd, stereotyped words, word-combinations and phraseological units and sort them out structurally and semantically. Find their Ukrainian counterparts. 5. Do you consider the clichéd mode of expression used in the text to be a defect of style? 6. Is the use of abbreviations a characteristic feature of this publication? Find instances of such and explain what they denote. 7. Are there any neologisms in the publication in question? What neologisms are generally found in newspaper style? 8. Are the instances of emotionally coloured lexical units as well as those of words and word-combinations used in their metaphoric, figurative meaning numerous in the present text? If there are any, comment on their stylistic function and the effect achieved? 9. Is the imagery used in the text genuine or trite in character? 10. Comment on the syntactical peculiarities of the present newspaper writing. What grammatical parameters and syntactical patterns characteristic of newspaper writing can be found in the present text? Provide examples. 11. How does the habit of news reporters to include a lot of information about the participants of the events described manifest itself in the present publication? 12. Can an extensive use of quotations be observed in the newspaper writing in question? Pick them out and comment on the way they are introduced. 13. Make a conclusion about the genre of the newspaper publication under study.
Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition 1. Which type of information is the publication in question characterised by? 2. Say into how many conceptual paragraphs the factual information of the text falls. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of it serving as key points of each part. Which conceptual paragraph coincides with the so-called lead and what information does it provide? 3. Are there any facts of socio-historical significance relevant in terms of the category of presupposition? Comment on the background information underlying them answering the questions that follow. 4. What do you know about the main figure in the scandal reported, David Blunkett, and the author of the revelatory report, Alan Budd? 5. What do the metonymic names Whitehall, Westminster and No 10 stand for? 6. Provide some information about the British newspapers the Guardian and the Spectator mentioned in the present publication. 7. What do you know about the British politicians Tony Blair and Gordon Brown? What positions did they occupy in 2005 and in what capacity are they working now? 3.2. The Category of Cohesion 1. What words can be treated as the chief key-words holding together the logical-semantic wholeness of the news report? 2. In what way does their recurrence make for the integrity of the text? What words and word-combinations are the key-words closely associated with? 3. What word-building means contribute to the lexical cohesion of the text? Comment on the role of affixation in the lexical cohesion of the text. 4. How do means of supraphrasal cohesion, i.e. different adverbial connectors, contribute to the perception of the news report as a logico-semantic whole? 5. Comment on the role synonyms proper and contextual synonyms play in the lexical cohesion of the news report. 6. How does antonymy reinforce the lexical cohesion of the newspaper writing in question? Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the news report “Blunkett resigns over visa for nanny” (The Guardian Weekly, December 24 – January 6, 2004 - 2005).
Unit 4. Linguistic Gaps in English VocabularyWhy does English have no phrase like “Bon Appétit”? Has it ever occurred to you that there is no simple way of expressing your hope that someone will enjoy what he is about to eat? If you are entertaining, and say to your guest as you put his dinner before him “I hope you like it”, then he will probably think one of two things: either that there is an element of doubt about the meal, or that there is an element of doubt about him! – that the food is perhaps unusual, and he will not be enough of a gastronomic sophisticate to appreciate it. You can be certain of one thing – he will not interpret “I hope you like it” in the same way that the Frenchman interprets “Bon appétit” – as a wish that focuses itself on the eater, and not on what is to be eaten. Those opposed to English cooking 1) will no doubt explain the lack by pointing to the quality of food in this country; it’s so bad, they will say, that no one ever really believes that it could be enjoyed. Hence, no need for a phrase that enjoins enjoyment! But surely not even English food can be as bad as all that. Anyway, it’s not only a matter of food. Have you never felt the need for a simple, universal and socially neutral expression to use when drinking with someone? The Spaniard has his “Salud”, the German his “Prosit”, Swedes say “Skaal”, and the Frenchman, simply and sincerely “Avotre sante”. But what about the unfortunate English? For most of them, “Good health” is impossibly old-fashioned and stuffy. It may be all right for lawyers and stockbrokers, doctors and dons, or for crusty colonels 2) inside the four walls of a club; but in the boozer down the Old Kent Road 3) it just sounds out of place. It is true that there is a whole string of vaguely possible alternatives that range from the mildly jocular through the awkward to the phrase-book bizarre 4); and if you listen carefully you may just hear people still saying “Here’s mud in your eye”, “Here’s the skin off your nose”, “Down the hatch” or “All the best” as they sink their pints or sip their sherries. But mostly they take refuge nowadays in “Cheerio” or its truncated version “Cheers”. And even here, for some people there is a sneaking suspicion that the term is not quite right. That it is somehow a shade too breezy, and comes most easily from someone addicted to tweeds and the phrase “Old chap” 5). Even when taking our leave it seems we English are victims of some strange deficiencies in our valedictory vocabulary. The standard term “Goodbye” is both too formal and too final. It may be just the job for ushering someone out of your life altogether; but most leave-takings – for better or worse – are temporary affairs. Perhaps in an attempt to escape implications of finality, many people now say “Bye bye” instead; others try to make this particularly nauseating bit of baby-talk more acceptable by shortening it to “Bye”. And in place of those many leave-takings which so easily accommodate the idea of another meeting – “Au revoir”, “Auf wiedersehen”, “Arrivederci” and so on, we have, alas, only such sad colloquialisms as “So long” and “I’ll be seeing you”. These examples by no means exhaust the areas in which the English language doesn’t exactly help social contact. They have been called “linguistic gaps” and tend to turn up in some way or another in most languages. But according to Mr. Daniel Kane – a lecturer at the University of Chester6) – there seem to be more of them in English than in other languages – at least other Western European languages. At the moment Mr. Kane is seeking funds to finance a small research project into the problem. He wants first of all to question a large number of people about their feelings on the matter. “After all, I must be certain that the man in the street is aware of these gaps in the same way that I think I am”, says Mr. Kane. And then he proposes to compare English with several other languages in this respect, and “Look for possible sociological reasons” for the differences he finds.
Explanatory Notes 1) Those opposed to English cooking – English people have always been fond of jokes about English food. There is also a widely-held belief, half-serious, half-jocular that all foreigners disapprove of English food. 2) It is being suggested that the kind of people here – all of them, incidentally, identified by reference to their time-honoured professions – are likely to be among the more staid, conservative sections of the community, both socially and linguistically. 3) the Old Kent Road – a famous London street, where lots of ordinary people may be found drinking in ordinary pubs. 4) the phrase-book bizarre – a reference to the fact that books of useful phrases for foreigners have acquired a reputation for sometimes containing oddly useless bits of language. 5) someone addicted to tweeds and the phrase “Old chap” – i.e. a rather “upper-class” member of society. Tweeds is a reference to the type of clothing associated with the popular image of “the country gentleman”; and it is being suggested here that “Old chap” is to be regarded as a similar social marker, but of a linguistic kind. There are several greetings of this form in English, in which “old” is used not in its normal sense, but as a term of friendliness. These include “old man”, “old boy”, “old girl” etc., and all carry overtones of the public school and upper middle classes, and are perhaps generally thought of as being either slightly comic, or too bluff and hearty. 6) the University of Chester – fictitious, as is the research project.
Section 1. TEXT COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS1. What problem is brought up in the present newspaper writing? 2. Which situations of British everyday life are characterized by the absence of simple, universal and socially neutral words and word-combinations in the English vocabulary? 3. In what way can the phrase “I hope you like it” concerning the food you offer to your guests be interpreted? 4. Can this expression be regarded as an equivalent of its French counterpart “Bon appétit”? Provide your explanations. 5. What expressions are there in the English language to use when drinking with someone, and why does the author call the English people “unfortunate” in this respect? 6. Why does the phrase “Good health” sound out of place for ordinary people in the pubs down the Old Kent Road? 7. What alternative phrases do the majority of English people resort to and why does the author also find them inadequate? 8. What social groups of the British society are associated with clothes made of tweed and the phrase “Old chap”? 9. What deficiencies is the English valedictory vocabulary characterized by in the author’s opinion? 10. Who is seeking funds to finance a research project into the problem of “linguistic gaps” and what are the aims and purposes of the project?
Section 2. Analysis of genre peculiarities of a newspaper publication2.1. 1. Does the information conveyed relate to events currently in the news or does it focus on a single topic of certain social significance? 2. How does the journalist create interest in the topic chosen and make the reader get involved in the discussion of the problem? 3. Is the balance between information and evaluation in favour of the former or the latter? Provide your arguments and illustrate them by references from the text. 2.2. 1. Comment on the arrangement of the information conveyed and the composition of the publication. 2. How is the logical connection between different parts of the author’s reasoning achieved so that the reader is led easily into the reading matter? 3. Does the headline deserve comment in terms of its vocabulary and grammar? 2.3. 1. Does the text contain a large amount of quoted material? What are the ways of introducing it? Provide examples. 2. Is the text characterized by a wide use of dashes? What purposes do they serve in the present text? 3. Which newspaper genre are the lexical peculiarities of the text in keeping with – a news report or a feature article? 4. Does the author mainly rely on stereotyped forms of expression or give reign to his individual stylistic preferences? 5. Find instances of deliberate combination of different stylistic strata of the text vocabulary and comment on the stylistic effect achieved. 6. Pick out examples of highly emotive and thoroughly evaluative words and account for their use proceeding from the author’s personal attitude to the problem in hand. 7. Do we trace a wide use of trite stylistic imagery and/or genuine stylistic devices? 8. What are the dominant stylistic devices the author makes use of to enhance the emotional-expressive impact of his arguments on the reader? 9. What epithets and metaphors serve to express the author’s sympathy for his compatriots in respect to certain deficiencies in the English vocabulary? 10. Does the use of some epithets ring the bell of certain social contradictions and prejudices in the British society? 11. Make a conclusion about the genre of the newspaper writing under analysis.
Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition 1. Which type of information is the newspaper publication under analysis characterized by? 2. Into how many conceptual paragraphs does the factual information fall? Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each part. 3. Find facts of socio-historical and/or cultural significance relevant in terms of the category of presupposition and comment on the background information underlying them. For this purpose answer the following questions. 4. Who is meant by “those opposed to English cooking”? 5. Why are English people of certain professions referred to as those who may positively assess the phrase “Good health”? 6. What is Old Kent Road famous for? 7. Does the University of Chester belong to really existing British Universities? 3.2. The Category of Cohesion 1. What words can be regarded as the main key-words of the text holding together its logical-semantic integrity? 2. In what way does their recurrence contribute to the lexical cohesion of the text? 3. What words and word-combinations are logically associated with the key-words? 4. Distinguish thematic groups of words and word-combinations united by the common notions of: 1. people speaking a certain language; 2. people of certain professions; 3. eating; 4. drinking; 5. leavetaking. 5. What lexico-semantic groups of words are conducive to the logico-semantic integrity of the text? 6. What word-building means reinforce the lexical cohesion of the text? 7. How do various adverbial connectors make for the logico-semantic wholeness of the writing? 8. Comment on the role synonyms proper and contextual synonyms play in the lexical cohesion of the text. 9. How does antonymy (both antonyms proper and contextual ones) reinforce the lexical cohesion of the newspaper writing? 10. Through what associative-semantic strings of words and word-combinations is the lexical cohesion of the text also achieved? Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the newspaper text “Linguistic Gaps in English Vocabulary”.
Unit 5. Pacific Warming Kills Thousands of Mammal PupsTHE TIMES TUESDAY DECEMBER 9 1997 Pacific warming
Giles Whittell in Los Angeles reports on the wildlife toll 1) of El Niño 2)
BABY seals and sea lions, deprived of food by the oceanic warming of El Niño, the weather phenomenon, are dying by the thousand on the islands off southern California. More than 6,000 pups have starved to death this breeding season on one tiny island alone. There, and along the Californian coast, the death rate is expected to rise as adult females of both species are forced to roam long distances for cold water and food, returning unable to support their young. News of the losses came as Los Angeles began cleaning up after the year’s first big El Niño storm drenched the city with up to seven inches of rain over the weekend. The storm flooded mobile home parks and the artists’ enclave of Laguna Beach, OrangeCounty, and brought traffic chaos to a place unused to rain. Wildlife, however, has so far borne the brunt of El Niño. The worst-hit marine mammal colonies are on the beaches of the Channel Islands National Park, a unique archipelago 50 miles west of Los Angeles that is home to the largest populations of California sea lions and northern fur seals outside Alaska. Scientists are maintaining a watching brief, forbidden by law from intervening in what so far appears to be a process of natural selection. Rescue efforts are under way by conservation groups on the mainland, however, where many consider the current severe El Niño pattern to be caused at least partly by man-made global warming. Perched on the edge of the continental shelf, the Channel Islands usually give seals and sea lions easy access to shoals of herring, sardine and anchovy in cold ocean waters to the north and west. In normal years a massive “cold water upwelling” also nourishes a kelp forest and vast blooms of krill, which in turn support migrating blue whales. The periodic warming of the Eastern Pacific, known as El Niño, has already brought freak numbers of tropical fish to US waters. The phenomenon has now been even more graphically illustrated by the emaciated sea lion pups sucking in vain on their mothers’ teats and lying down to die. Of the 23,000 sea lions born this summer, 4,500 have so far died of malnutrition, according to Bob DeLong of the National Marine Fisheries Service. Their death rate is expected to rise fourfold to match the 75 per cent death rate among baby seals: 1,500 of the 2,000 northern fur seals born on SanMiguelIsland since June have died. International conservation treaties have helped both species to thrive along America’s West Coast since the 1950s, but experts fear that this year’s El Niño, the worst on record, could wipe out an entire generation of adult females. “They’ve used up all their blubber on lactation,” Mr DeLong told yesterday’s Los Angeles Times. “They’ve got no reserve energy and they’re just going to go back in that same damned ocean. They’re going to need to find cold water, and I think that’s going to be hard.” Manila: The International Committee of the Red Cross is making available between $5.6 million (£3.3 million) and $7.01 million to help countries, including Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, hit by El Niño. (AFP)
Explanatory Notes 1) Toll – used mainly in newspaper headline language to denote the total number of people who have been killed. Here: of wildlife. 2) El Niño – is a warm ocean current of variable intensity that develops after late December along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and sometimes causes catostrophic weather conditions, e.g. flood, droughts, warming and other weather disturbances in many regions of the world. El Niño is Spanish for “the boy” and refers to the Christ child, because periodic warming in the Pacific near South America is usually noticed around Christmas.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1. What problem is covered in the newspaper publication under study? 2. Which species of ocean mammals fell victims to El Niño? 3. What is the reported wildlife toll of El Niño? 4. What geographical areas were worst affected by the warm current of El Niño? 5. Where and why is the death rate among baby seals and sea-lions expected to rise? 6. What are the destructive consequences of the year’s first big El Niño storm and who has borne the brunt of El Niño so far? 7. What is reported to be home to the largest populations of California sea lions and northern fur seals outside Alaska? 8. What rescue measures are taken by scientists and conservation groups and what do they consider to be the cause of the current severe El Niño pattern? 9. What usually gives mammal population easy access to cold water fish, enumerate what kinds of fish these are? 10. Why are baby seals and sea lions dying by the thousand and how many of them have so far died according to the National Marine Fisheries Service? 11. What is the role of the international conservation treaties in saving both species and what are experts apprehensive about? 12. What is the indispensable condition for wildlife’s survival? 13. What amount of money is going to be spent on the assistance to the countries hit by El Niño?
Section 2. Analysis of genre peculiarities of a newspaper publication2.1. 1. Does the information conveyed concern the event that has recently taken place or/and does it concentrate on the problem of general human interest? 2. Does the journalist’s position seem to be that of an unbiased observer or does he impose his assessment and emotional attitude to the facts discussed on the reader? If it is so, what language means serve this purpose? 3. What is the correlation between pure, matter-of-fact information and elements of appraisal and appeal to the reader in the text? 2.2. 1. Can the initial physical paragraph be treated as an instance of a lead? 2. What paralinguistic features of the publication serve to attract the casual reader’s attention? Comment on the splash headline, subheading and the arresting picture. 3. Do the headlines’ grammar and vocabulary meet the requirements of the newspaper style? Comment on them. 4. Which newspaper genre is the topographical design of the writing more characteristic of – a news report or a feature article? Comment on the size and the syntactic structure of the paragraphs. 2.3. 1. Is there a large amount of quotations in the text? How are they introduced? 2. Which grammatical forms used in the writing are suggestive of spoken English style? 3. Which mode of expression prevails in the text – the clichéd, stereotyped vocabulary or the author’s stylistic idiosyncratic preferences? 4. What language and paralinguistic means serve to evoke the reader’s compassion for the dying sea animals? 5. Is the newspaper writing characterized by a wide use of scientific terminology? Which field of knowledge does it refer to? 6. Which stylistic devices are preferred by the author: trite or genuine ones? 7. What epithets illustrate the author’s subjective handling of the information conveyed? 8. What conclusion can be drawn in respect to the genre of the newspaper writing in question? What ‘borderline’ genre features can be observed both on the structural and lexical levels of the text?
Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition 1. Which type of information prevails in the newspaper writing under analysis? 2. Into how many conceptual paragraphs can the factual information be segmented? Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline the items of which serving as key points of each part. 3. What facts relevant in terms of the category of presupposition are there in the text? Comment on the background information underlying them. For this purpose answer the following questions. 4. What is El Niño, what areas of the world ocean is it observed in and what consequences does it cause? 5. Provide information concerning the following geographical names: California, Los Angeles, Laguna Beach, Orange County, The Channel Islands, Alaska, San Miguel Island, The Pacific, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea. 3.2. The Category of Cohesion 1. What words can be treated as the main key-words of the text integrating it into a global logico-semantic whole? 2. What words and word-combinations are logically associated with the key-words? 3. Pick out words and word-combinations pertaining to the thematic groups united by the common notions of: - sea-animal - food for sea animals - destructive consequences of El Niño for human life - destructive influence of El Niño on wildlife 4. What lexico-semantic groups of words make for the lexical cohesion of the text? 5. How does antonymous relations reinforce the lexical cohesion of the newspaper writing in question? 6. Comment on the role synonyms proper and contextual synonyms play in the lexical cohesion of the text. 7. How do the hyperonymic-hyponymic relations affect the logico-semantic wholeness of the text? 8. How do numerous geographical names used in the text contribute to its integrity? Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the newspaper text “Pacific warming kills thousands of mammals pups” (The Times, December 9, 1997).
PART THREE SCIENTIFIC FUNCTIONAL STYLEI. General Notes1.1. The language used in texts belonging to different branches of knowledge, both sciences and humanities [1], is considered to be one of the major functional varieties of Modern English which is generally referred to as scientific functional style or scientific prose style. Like any functional style of a literary language scientific prose style is characterised by the following extralinguistic styleforming factors: - a certain functional-communicative aim, - a form of cognition of objective reality underlying it, - a certain sphere of application. The scientific functional style aims at transmitting (passing on) a certain amount of scientifically relevant information in an objective, logically consistent, precisely formulated, matter-of-fact way. The form of perceiving and knowing the world and its internal laws underlying the language of science is the process of scientific cognition on the basis of analysis and generalization of different phenomena of reality. The sphere of application of scientific functional style is scientific and academic communication, both, written (different kinds of scientific publications) and oral ones (presentations of scientific information in public at conferences, symposia, congresses, lectures at Universities, etc.). The requirements of objectivity, precision and logical consistency result in quite a definite range of language means typical of this functional style which tend to be devoid of any implicit, indirect, allegorical modes of expression, and are characterized by striving for stereotype, clichéd, i.e. regularly reproduced forms of conveying information in order to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding. This predetermines general linguostylistic peculiarities of a scientific text on all levels of its lingual structure, namely, lexical, morphological, syntactical ones. Besides, certain paralinguistic features of a scientific text also result from the above mentioned factors. The functional style of scientific prose is characterized by its own genre specificity which appears to be one of its most noticeable differential features. Among the most important genres of scientific style are a monograph, a journal article, a thesis and its synopsis, a review, a paper presentation (at a conference).
1.2. Lexical peculiarities of a scientific text (ST)It has been shown by numerous investigations in the field that the vocabulary of a scientific text comprises the following three lexical strata (layers): 1) terminological layer; 2) general scientific layer; 3) general literary language units. Terminological layer is the most conspicuous layer in the vocabulary of a ST, and it comprises the following three subgroups of terms: 1) special terminology, 2) general scientific terminology, 3) consubstantial terminology. 1. Special terminology. Though special terms, i.e. terms belonging to this or that branch of knowledge seem to be the most salient feature of a scientific text, they constitute only 20% of the lexical units of a ST. The majority of special terms are expressed by nouns, that is why special terminology is said to be mostly nominal in character. Nevertheless, verbs, adjectives can also be used as special terminological units. Special terminology is characterized by a tendency to make up certain derivational series comprising different parts of speech with the same root-morpheme: e.g. v. to absorb, n. absorption, adj. absorbable, absorptive. Special terminology can be expressed both by individual terminological lexemes, e.g. laser, velocity, plasma, and terminological word-combinations, as well, e.g. laser pulse, phase velocity, active plasma medium, etc. 2. General scientific terminology, i.e. terms, denoting the most general notions of all sciences and humanities, are found in any scientific text irrespective of a branch of knowledge they refer to, e.g. system, structure, process, hierarchy, correlation etc. 3. Consubstantial terminology is a specific group of terms within a scientific text which by their graphic and sound form coincide with corresponding words of general literary language (общелитературный язык), but they function in a scientific text as either 1. special terms, e.g. linguistic terms: rhythm, melody, sound, speech, physical terms: pulse, speed, field, or as 2. general scientific terms, e.g. feature, variant, pattern, level, etc. General scientific layer, first and foremost, diagnoses a text as a scientific one, as the amount of its units in the vocabulary of a ST is much greater than that of special terminology. General scientific units constitute 60% in the vocabulary of a ST and are characterised by the following features: - by their obvious distinction from special terms, as they are found in different texts belonging to different branches of science; - by their regular reproductivity as ready-made units in different scientific and humanities texts; - by specific general scientific meaning different from that in general literary language, e.g. the noun ‘look’ denoting an optical process in general literary language acquires quite a different general scientific meaning within a scientific text, e.g. in “to have a close look at smth.”, the noun ‘look’ is used to denote a mental process. In “to draw a comparison between smth.”, “to draw a conclusion” the verb ‘to draw’ is used to denote mental, intellective operations, too. General scientific units can be expressed by: 1) individual lexemes, functioning as adverbial connectors of various semantics, among them: parentheses, e.g. nevertheless, thus, hence, anyhow, indeed, etc.; conjunctions, e.g. but, while, whereas, whereby, etc.; adverbs, e.g. similarly, respectively, consequently, conversely, etc. 2) word-combinations, or word-groups of various character – substantive, verbal, adjectival, etc. e.g. verbal word-combinations: to draw a conclusion, to focus on smth, to be concerned with smth, etc.; substantive word-combinations: the literature on the subject, a close correlation between smth, the problem under consideration, etc.; adjectival word-combinations: finely graded, clearly marked, etc. 3) predicative polylexemic units, i.e. syntagmatic units which be extracted from the text as ready-made segments of sentences, and thus possess a Subject + Predicate structure, e.g. It would be more accurate to say that …; a good example of this is …; we can all recognize that …; this is not merely a question of … but that of …, etc. Units of general literary language (общелитературные единицы) are found in any functional style, among them: 1) functional words – auxiliaries, modal and link verbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions; 2) words of general use, e.g. verbs of saying, thinking, etc. Since the main function of the language of science is that of intellective communication, the general mode of scientific reasoning is unemotional, generalized, devoid of the author’s stylistic idiosyncrasy. Hence the following general features of scientific vocabulary: - words are mainly used in their direct nominative, not transferred meanings to ensure the adequate perception of scientific information. Hence a very important feature of scientific vocabulary – its stylistic neutrality. - alongside stylistically neutral lexical units, bookish words of Greek, Latin or French origin are also used as part and parcel of a scientific text vocabulary. They are found both, within special and general scientific terminology, on the one hand, e.g. amplification, acceleration, method, analysis and in the general scientific stratum, on the other, e.g. heterogeneous, simultaneous, hierarchy, milieu, etc. But it does not mean to say that stylistic neutrality ousts expressivity and stylistic imagery from a ST altogether. Means of expressivity are not entirely excluded, but they are of a specific character: - quantitative expressivity predominates in a ST and is often conveyed by: a) adjectives in the Comparative or Superlative Degrees, e.g. much more numerous, finer differences, the most obvious distinctions, etc.; b) emphatic and limiting adverbs and particles: very, merely, simply, really, far (more), mainly, mostly, exactly, entirely, e.g. really effective, very far from conservative, much the same, etc.; - metaphorical and metonymical imagery which is found in general scientific layer of the scientific vocabulary is mostly trite, e.g. to cast (throw) light on smth., to bear in mind, to draw a parallel, to exhaust a problem, the untrained ear, etc. All these units are traditionally used in a scientific text as stereotype, clichéd expressions. Metaphorical imagery may also serve as a basis for creating new terms in different scientific areas, e.g. in medicine Adam’s apple, in electronics a black box, in linguistics an empty morph, etc. Rather a rare use of genuine imagery in a ST should be treated as the manifestation of the author’s stylistic individuality. - expressivity can take a form of subjective modal evaluation, as inexpressions of certainty/doubt, possibility/impossibility, necessity/absence of - expressivity can be also presented by certain emotive lexemes, i.e. words with inherent expressive-evaluative connotations, e.g. It should be emphasized that …, the most interesting thing about it is that …, one of the striking peculiarities of … is …, etc. However varied means of expressivity in the vocabulary of a ST may be, they never aim at rousing the reader’s aesthetic feelings. They are used to favour the cogency of scientific reasoning and to facilitate eliciting scientific information, otherwise stated, they directly serve the main functional-communicative aim of the scientific functional style.
Assignments for self-controlMake sure you can answer these questions1. What main extralinguistic styleforming factors is scientific functional style characterized by? 2. How do the requirements of objectivity, precision and logical consistency affect the language of a scientific prose style? 3. What lexical layers does the vocabulary of a scientific consist of? Briefly characterize each of them. 4. Why is special terminology said to be mainly nominal in character and what tendency is it characterized by? 5. What do general scientific terms denote and what units are they mainly expressed by? 6. Comment on the difference between general scientific and special terminology. 7. What features are general scientific layer units characterized by and what units can they be expressed by? 8. Why is the general mode of scientific reasoning said to be unemotional and devoid of the author’s stylistic idiosyncrasy? 9. What means of expressivity are characteristic of a scientific prose style? 10. How can rare instances of genuine imagery in a scientific text be treated?
1.3. Morphological peculiarities of a scientific textFirst impressions of the language of science are that its distinctiveness lies in its vocabulary. But this should not lead us to disregard certain typical grammatical features of scientific English which similarly to lexical ones result from general impersonality and stereotypeness of expression in a ST. - One of widely-quoted stereotypes of scientific English grammar is an extensive use of Passive Voice constructions which can be regarded as a helpful way of ensuring objectivity and generalization in presenting scientific facts and ideas. It should be noted that impersonal Passive Voice constructions with the verbs ‘suppose’, ‘assume’, ‘infer’, ‘point out’, etc., as in ‘It can be inferred’, ‘It must be emphasized’ are also frequently used. - A concern for objectivity and generalization also results in a wide use of impersonal constructions with the pronoun ‘one’, as in ‘one may assume’, ‘one can really see’, ‘one cannot help noticing’, etc. - The use of the personal pronoun of the 1st person plural ‘we’ can also be selected as an example of a generalized form of expression in scientific writings. It serves to reflect a joint, collective nature of scientific research, on the one hand, but it can also aim at involving the specialist reader into the process of scientific reasoning and demonstration, on the other. It is sometimes regarded as a means of ‘the author’s modesty’. Some other features typical of the grammar of academic and scientific writing: - the prevalence of present tense-forms of the verb in scientific reasoning, mostly the Present Indefinite or the Present Perfect, e.g. ‘Here we consider the case of exact resonance’, ‘Organic geochemical procedures and contamination controls have been developed to be applied to the samples containing minute amounts of organic compounds’. - rather an extensive use of various Subjunctive Mood forms as means of making scientific statements, assumptions, inferences sound less straightforward, e.g. ‘If this were done for each parameter, the resulting normal equations would be nearly diagonal … and the convergence of the least-squares process would be accelerated’, ‘It would be more accurate to say that diffraction is not the only influence which limits the performance of a spectrometer’. - Another fairly typical feature of scientific English is a frequent use of non-finite forms (Infinitive, Participle, Gerund) in different syntactic functions within a sentence and within certain predicative complexes, especially, Subjective-with-the-Infinitive, Objective-with-the-Infinitive, Absolute Participial Construction, e.g. ‘The electrization of bodies is expected to be given account of in terms of atomic structure’. ‘The equation seems to hold only for symmetrical molecules’. ‘The existing data being limited, no definite conclusions could be made’.
1.4. Syntactic peculiarities of a scientific textThe language of science has developed a complex, extended syntactic structure, as it tends to integrate several relevant issues into a single statement. - The overwhelming majority of sentences in a ST are complex ones, often comprising a number of different subordinate clauses, because logical unfolding of scientific reasoning in a ST simply requires the use of ‘that’, ‘because’, ‘as’, ‘if’, ‘but’, ‘although’, etc. clauses. - The relations between words within a sentence and between clauses and sentences are often made explicit through the abundant use of various conjunctions, conjunctive words and parentheses. Double correlative conjunctions are also fairly typical of scientific writing, e.g. not merely… but also, whether … or, both … and, as … as, etc. It will not be an exaggeration to say that in no other functional style do we find such a developed and varied system of connectives as in scientific prose. - Simple sentences, both unextended and extended ones, are not numerous, but the very compactness of their structure brings out their informative significance against the background of the structural complexity of the rest of the sentences. - The necessity to present scientific information in an as complete and detailed way as possible gives rise to a wide use of different types of attributes, both prepositive and postpositive ones, among them prepositive attributive groups comprising strings of nouns of the type N+N+…+N, e.g. world-population-growth rate, shock-wave-velocity measurement, anti-aircraft-fire-control systems. Many nouns are modified by attributive Participial, Gerundial or Infinitive constructions for the same reason, e.g. ‘The first effect to consider in solving the problem is the additional heat’. ‘The aim of this paper is to find a proper value for the indices involved’. ‘The mere fact of there being a written constitution in the USA does not mean by itself the solution of the problem’. - The word-order on the sentence level is mostly direct, though there are cases of grammatical inversion which serves as a means of cohesion with the above-said, e.g. ‘Between the receptor and the connector stands an intermediate set of elements’. - The unusual word-order of some adjectives or adverbs is observed in certain syntactic constructions where it is used for emphatic purposes: - However + Adj / Adv + S + P…, e.g. ‘However often we may observe pieces of gold to dissolve, we must still allow it to be possible that … ’ - Adj + as + S + P…, e.g. ‘Impressive as these objections appear, when all collected together, they would nevertheless seem to be answered by the formulation of Mach’s principle.’ - the emphatic construction It is… that…, e.g. ‘It is this vibration that reemits the light by which we see the objects around us. ’ - points of contrast or similarity are rhetorically balanced by such syntactic devices as the more … the less, the bigger … the smaller, the more … the more, e.g. ‘The more daring any particular judgement happens to be, the less it is likely to constitute reliable evidence of international law’. - One of the most important syntactic features of scientific English is the logical sequence of utterances which finds its expression in the way a scientific text itself is structured. Any scientific text is visually manageable due to its orderly division into paragraphs ranging in length rather widely. Paragraphs fit together well due to a developed system of sentence-connecting items, so that they form a united logico-semantic whole. Most paragraphs begin with a general thematic point, and later sentences elaborate. The theme of the next paragraph then derives from the previous one’s elaboration. Many sentences have a cross-reference back to a previous sentence or clause. This makes it clear that a given subject is still being discussed, which reduces the scope of vagueness.
1.5. Paralinguistic peculiarities of a scientific textThe informativity of a scientific text is created not only by purely verbal means, but also by paralinguistic ones. Here belong certain semiotic devices used as bearers of additional scientific information in such branches of knowledge as mathematics, physics and chemistry. For example, in physics and mathematics the following symbols are used on a par with verbal means of conveying information: figures, letter designations: e.g. ‘∫’ – integral, ‘d’ – differential, ‘υ’ – velocity, ‘c’ – the speed of light; signs of the four arithmetic operations: +, –,:, ×; in chemistry: symbols of the periodic system of elements and others. Graphs, pictures, drawings, figures and diagrams can serve as visual means of presenting scientific information, as well.
1.6. References and foot-notes in a scientific textThe volume of the scientific information conveyed can be considerably enlarged by the use of in-text references. These sometimes may occupy as much as half a page when some sources are quoted or paraphrased. In some specimens of scientific prose references are placed at the back of the book and shaped as an appendix. In that case reference numbers will be found in the body of the book. References have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the work quoted or simply referred to, the place and the year it is published, the name of the publishing house, the page of the excerpt referred to or quoted. Another feature of scientific prose which makes it distinguishable from other functional styles is a frequent use of footnotes, not of a reference kind, but digressive in character. Foot-notes do not merely refer us to some author and their books, but they clarify some facts or notions dwelling upon them not within the text, as it can interrupt the smooth flow of the author’s thought, but they are usually placed at the bottom of a page.
Assignments for self-controlMake sure you can answer these questions1. What morphological peculiarities of a scientific text result from general impersonality and stereotypeness of expression in it? 2. Characterize the grammar of academic and scientific writing in terms of the categories of Tense and Mood and the non-finite forms. 3. Comment on the peculiarities of the syntactic structure of the language of science and account for its complexity. 4. What syntactic means contribute to the explicit character of the logical relations between words in a sentence and between clauses and sentences in a ST? 5. What syntactic constructions serve to present scientific information in a ST in an as complete and detailed way as possible? 6. Comment on the unusual word-order in certain emphatic construction typical of a ST. 7. What makes any scientific text visually manageable, and what is the logical sequence of utterances ensured by? 8. What nonverbal means of conveying information is a ST characterized by? 9. What devices can the volume of the scientific information conveyed be enlarged by in a ST? 10. Discuss the difference between references and footnotes of a digressive character as bearers of additional information in a ST.
1.7. The categories of informativity, presupposition and segmentability in a scientific text- Since the main functional-communicative aim of a scientific text is that of conveying purely intellective information, the category of informativity is confined to the factual information only. - Like in any functional variety of the language the volume of the factual information in a scientific text can be widened at the expense of some facts relevant in terms of another textlinguistic category, that of presupposition. As any scientific or humanities text is addressed to the specialist reader, the category of presupposition finds specific forms of expression, namely, through references, foot-notes and quotations. - In terms of the category of segmentability the structure of a scientific text can be described through two basic units of its logico-semantic divisibility – physical and conceptual paragraphs. - The conceptual paragraph within a scientific text may coincide with the corresponding physical paragraph marked on a page by spacing or indentation. But more often than not, the size of the conceptual paragraph extends across the boundaries of more than one physical paragraph, as several physical paragraphs may be united and held together by some common idea. So, the conceptual paragraph can be considered the main unit of the logico-semantic analysis of a scientific text as an integral structural-semantic whole.
1.8. The rhetorical organization of a scientific textA scientific text is characterized by certain rhetorical organization which finds its expression in the use of various rhetorical patterns, i.e. functionally significant syntagmatic sequences expressed by general scientific units and closely associated with certain reasoning processes of scientific communication. Rhetorical patterns have been worked out by the language of science as the optimum stereotype forms of expression which serve to reflect certain recurrent types of content, on the one hand, and certain compositional stereotypes of a scientific text, on the other. - The following two main types of traditionally used rhetorical patterns can be distinguished in a scientific text: 1. those concerned with certain stages and procedures of scientific cognition as such and 2. those pertaining to the structural-compositional arrangement of a scientific text. - Rhetorical patterns connected with the process of scientific cognition comprise rhetorical patterns of definition, classification, generalization, experiment description, formulating a hypothesis and others. - Structural-compositional rhetorical patterns are expressed by general scientific units which serve as scientific text organizers for ordering and arranging different parts of scientific reasoning: 1. aims and purposes, e.g. we shall consider briefly (in detail) the problem of…; this book is meant to show …; what we are aiming at is …; 2. generally recognized facts, e.g. it is common knowledge …that…; it is generally believed that…; it is commonly held that…; 3. beginning of reasoning, e.g. we shall begin by saying that …; we will begin with a brief consideration of …; the first point to be made is …; 4. connection with the above said, e.g. as has been already pointed out …; it has already been stated above …; we began by saying that …; so far we have considered only …; 5. transition to the ensuing part of reasoning, e.g. we shall now proceed to show…; it follows from what has been said that…; the next point to be made is that …; we now move to …; let us now consider …; 6. adding on information, e.g. it should be added in this connection that…; it requires an additional remark…; in addition it may be useful (necessary) to…; 7. digression, returning to the above said, e.g. here a digression is called for…; to see the point we must go back to…; it brings us back to…; 8. specification of information, e.g. by this we mean (don’t mean) that…; this is not to say that…; in other words…; to clarify the point…; 9. drawing conclusions, e.g. we may now summarize… by saying that…; it enables us to make a conclusion that…; in conclusion we would like to say that…; 10. bringing out the most important points, e.g. we should lay special emphasis on…; it should be borne in mind that …; it is noteworthy that…; it is worth pointing out that…; it seems essential to emphasize that…; 11. exemplification, e.g. this may serve as a good illustration of…; here are some examples of…; two or three examples will suffice to show that…; 12. expression of certainty, e.g. it can hardly be doubted that…; it goes without saying that …; we have every reason to believe that …; 13. expression of doubt, e.g. it is doubtful that…; it is hardly acceptable…; there is no reason to think that …; 14. expression of possibility/impossibility, e.g. it is quite possible that…; we are now in a position to show …; it is easy enough to show…; it would be no less erroneous to believe that …; 15. expression of necessity/absence of necessity, e.g. it is necessary, therefore to …; we find it necessary to …; it is pointless to state that …; 16. expression of desirability, usefulness, e.g. it would be most helpful to begin with…; it seems worthwhile to remind that…. The rhetorical patterns of both types are regularly correlated with certain lexical units which serve as their direct markers, e.g. it is common knowledge …; it is a matter of common observation…; we would like to focus on …; this book is intended to show …; as has been explained above …; a further point to be made …; to clarify the point; by this we mean to say that…, etc.
1.9. The category of cohesion in a scientific textIt is generally held that among various means of text cohesion it is lexical means of cohesion that, first and foremost, contribute to the logico-semantic integrity of the text, as they appear to be the most explicitly expressed means of cohesion which facilitate the identification and the establishment of logico-semantic links between different informationally significant parts of a text. It is also common knowledge that the lexical cohesion of any text finds its expression in: 1. the recurrence of key-words which reflect the most important content points of a text; 2. the use of words pertaining to certain lexico-semantic groups united by some common notions; 3. the use of words and word-combinations making up certain thematic groups on the basis of common underlying notions; 4. the use of words logically associated with the key-words; 5. the use of synonyms proper and contextual ones; 6. the use of antonyms, both antonyms proper and contextual ones; 7. the use of words built up by some common word-building elements (derivatives, compounds, conversion pairs, etc.). But it should be specially stressed that a scientific text is characterized by one more means of lexical cohesion inherent only in this functional variety of language and very important from the point of view of explicit logico-semantic integration of different parts of a scientific text. These linking devices can be referred to as coheremes which function as certain discourse markers to ensure that a scientific text is coherent and cohesive. Coheremes can be grouped according to their usual functions in a scientific text into: 1. coheremes of immediate linear joining which reflect the progressive development of the author’s reasoning; 2. coheremes of deictic character based on the close association between an antecedent, i.e. the primary designation of something in a text, and a means of its secondary nomination. As far as coheremes of immediate linear joining are concerned, they can be expressed by certain ‘guide words’ and ‘guide word-groups’ which serve: a. to sequence ideas, e.g. firstly, secondly, finally, first of all, next, lastly; b. to express contrast, e.g. but, however, nevertheless, yet, in spite of, as distinct from; c. to state results, e.g. thus, as a result, consequently, therefore, hence; d. to provide reasons, e.g. in order to…, so as not to…, so that…, the reason for this is…; e. to add further support, e.g. besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition; f. to generalize the above said, e.g. in brief, in a word, generally speaking; g. to express similarity, e.g. similarly, likewise, in the same way, on analogy. Some coheremes of immediate linear joining are directly correlated with their counterparts among structural-compositional rhetorical patterns, the former serving as means of lexical cohesion, the latter used as traditional formulae of scientific speech, e.g. we shall begin by saying that…; another point to be made is…; from this we can conclude that…; it is a matter of common observation that…. The sum total of coheremes of immediate linear joining expressed both by guide words and guide word-groups forms the logico-semantic network of a scientific text, which ensures proper and complete comprehension of the scientific information conveyed. As for coheremes of deictic character, they are closely connected with the process of secondary nomination of something mentioned in the previous part of a scientific text. The nomenclature of deictic coheremes is presented by: 1. some guide words and guide word-groups, which in a compressed form, correlate the above said (i.e. the antecedent) with its secondary designation, e.g. the former, the latter, the above-mentioned, the above example, etc. 2. nouns of broad semantics, which in a generalized form, refer the reader to the antecedent which they replace, among them the nouns: thing, problem, picture, phenomenon, practice, theory, procedure, case, question, approach, etc., e.g. This is not merely a question of…, but…, as long as this legal theory is maintained, there seems to be little difficulty in maintaining the distinction between the two approaches to the problem in question. The characteristic features of the language of science described above do not cover all the peculiarities of the functional style of scientific prose, but they are the most essential ones.
Assignments for self-controlMake sure you can answer these questions1. Explain why the category of informativity in a ST is confined to the factual information only. 2. Which forms does the category of presupposition find in a ST? 3. What are the two basic units of the logico-semantic segmentability of a ST? 4. Speak on the peculiarities of the conceptual paragraph as the main unit of a ST informational structure. 5. What are the main units of the rhetorical organization of a ST? 6. Comment on the peculiarities and functions of the structural-compositional rhetorical patterns and those closely associated with certain stages of scientific cognition used in a ST. 7. Why do lexical means of cohesion, first and foremost, make for the logico-semantic integrity of a ST? 8. What specific means of lexical cohesion, inherent in a ST, is it characterized by? 9. What is the difference between the coheremes of immediate linear joining and the deictic ones? Describe the nomenclature of the coheremes of both types. 10. What units of the rhetorical organization of a ST are some coheremes of immediate linear joining directly correlated with? Unit 1. English Dialects from Charles Barber. Linguistic Changes in Present-Day EnglishCharles Barber was formerly a reader of the English language and literature at the university of Leeds. He died in 2000. He is the author of one of the most influential and widely-read books on the history of the language, The Story of Language (1964) and, later, The English Language: A Historical Introduction (Cambridge University Press in 1993). In Linguistic Changes in Present-Day English Charles Barber does not discuss linguistic change in its technical sense, but focuses on social references among existing alternatives – in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. These changes have resulted from a variety of social factors, notably the expansion of education, the blurring of class lines, and the decline in prestige and power of the traditional ruling classes. It is obvious to all of us that different kinds of English are spoken, even inside England. This is not merely a question of individual peculiarities (though these of course exist) but of the peculiarities of groups of speakers. We can all recognize a kind of speech characteristic of the north of England, of the West county, of the London area, even if we lack the power to analyse the differences; in other words, there are in England clearly marked regional dialects, and those are much more numerous and finely graded than is apparent to the untrained ear; the ordinary Londoner recognizes a style of speech as “northern”, but he is, in fact, lumping together a whole host of dialects; the speech of Lancashire 1) differs from that of Yorkshire 2), that of West Riding 3) from that of East Riding 4), and so on; and within these areas there are even finer differences, between districts, between towns, sometimes even between neighbouring villages; though in real life you will never meet a dialectologist who can, like professor Higgins in Shaw’s “Pygmalion” 5), distinguish between the dialects of different streets. To the ordinary speaker, the most obvious differences between the regional dialects are those of pronunciation: the Londoner trying to imitate Lancashire speech will usually concentrate on such things as the vowel-sounds in the words cup and ask and don’t, and (if he is a good mimic) on certain distinctive features of rhythm and melody. But there are also differences in vocabulary (dialect words) and grammar. “If t’United had less brass to lake wi’, they’d lake better foitball”, says one of Mr. J.B. Priestly’s Yorkshire characters 6), using words that would be strange (and even incomprehensible) in the south. “I nivver rekoned nowt o’ barbers”, says another, using a construction equally alien to the southerner. Besides being thus diversified horizontally into regional dialects, the language is also diversified vertically, into class dialects. In a given town, a mill-hand, a clerk, a primary-school teacher, the shopkeeper, the lawyer, the bank-manager and the company-director may all speak a local variant of the language, but they will also speak a subvariant of it, according to their social status, social pretensions, and education. In every district there is a hierarchy of dialects, corresponding, in some degree, with the local social structure. A speaker will tend to find that the speech of people lower down in this hierarchy sounds “rough” or “vulgar” (and perhaps also picturesque); while the speech of people higher in the scale will sound either affected (“posh”) or desirably refined, according to his ambitions and social orientation. Such judgements have little to do with the intrinsic qualities of the language, but are simply due to associations: if by some historical accident the vowel-sounds of the Cockney 7) and of the Eton 8) boy had been distributed to them the other way round, we should still have found the speech of the Cockney “vulgar” and that of the Eton boy “posh”. The social stratification of the language appears in syntax and vocabulary as well as in pronunciation. The speaker higher in the scale describes many of the usages of lower strata as “ungrammatical”, it would be more accurate to say that the grammar of these dialects is different from the grammar of his own. In vocabulary, one can sometimes find a whole series of words used at different social levels: a good example for this is the word for the course of a meal which follows the main course; there are regional variations in this, but the general pattern of usage is as follows: pudding (upper and upper-middle), sweet (middle), dessert (lower-middle), afters (lower-middle and lower), and pudding (lower). The coincidence in usage between top and bottom is interesting, and is found in some other things. Such differences are often marked by referring to the speech as “educated” and “uneducated”; to some extent, “education” is here merely a euphemism for “class”, for, although class has for centuries been a topic of the greatest interest in England (as the novel reveals), our own age seems to find the subject a trifle indelicate, and only to be referred to, indirectly (like sex, war, death, lavatories, and economic depressions). However, “education” in this context is not only a euphemism for “class”, for it is in fact true that our style of speech is affected by our education. This can often be seen where members of the same family have been through different parts of the educational machine: one may have left school at fourteen and gone into the mill; a second may have gone through grammar school and got a job in business, while a third may have won a scholarship to Oxford and ended up in one of the learned professions; even if they make no conscious effort to adapt their speech to their milieu (which, of course, many of them do), such sets of siblings will end up with markedly different styles of speech, simply from the influence of their varying speech-environments. But even here, of course, there is a close correlation between education and class, since different educations lead to different occupations (not many university graduates are content, like Jimmy Porter 9), to become barrow-boys.)
Explanatory Notes 1) Lancashire – one of the counties in the North West of England which takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Lancashire is sometimes referred to by the abbreviation Lancs, originally used by the Royal Mail. The population of the county is 1,449,700. People from the county are known as Lancastrians. 2) Yorkshire – a county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Yorkshire is named after the city of York which is a shortened form of the Viking name Jorvik. 3) West Riding, 4) East Riding – former administrative divisions of Yorkshire (also including North Riding) until 1974. Since 1996 the northern part of the area has formed the county of North Yorkshire, while the rest of the Yorkshire area consists of unitary authorities. 5) Pygmalion (1912) – a play by the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw. The main character, Professor of phonetics Henry Higgins, connoisseur of impeccable English pronunciation. 6) J.B. Priestly (1894 - 1984) – British journalist, novelist, playwright, and essayist. Priestley's output was vast and varied – he wrote over one hundred novels, plays, and essays, and is best known as the author of the novel THE GOOD COMPANIONS (1929). 7) Cockney – one of the best known English Southern dialects. Geographically and culturally it often refers to a working class of Londoners, particularly those in the East End. This regional-social variety of the English language has certain distinctive features in pronunciation, namely: 1) interchange of the labial and labio-dental consonants [w] and [v]: wery for very, vell for well; 2) substitution of the voiceless and voiced dental spirants [θ] and [ð] by [f] and [v] respectively: fing for thing, farver for father (inserting the letter r indicates vowel length); 3) interchange of the aspirated and non-aspirated initial vowels: hart for art, ’eart for heart; 4) substitution of the diphthong [aI] for standard [eI]: day [daI] for [deI], face [faIs] for [feIs] etc. Besides, there are some specific features in vocabulary and grammar as well: 1) specifically Cockney words and set-expressions: up the pole ‘drunk’, you’ll get yourself disliked (a reprimand to a person behaving very badly); 2) the so-called rhyming slang: daisy roots for boots, tit for tat for hat, loaf of bread for head, trouble and strife for wife; 3) the use of double negatives: I don’t like no man. 8) Eton – English public schoolfor boys aged from 13 to 18 near Windsor, Berkshire, founded in 1440 by King Henry VI. Its pupils are mainly from wealthy families, and many of Britain’s public figures were educated there. So, Eton has traditionally been referred to as "the chief nurse of England's statesmen". Former pupils are known as Old Etonians. 9)Jimmy Porter – one of the characters, known as the angry young men, of the play by the English playwright John Osborne Look Back in Anger (1956), who though a representative of an upper-middle class and a university graduate, nevertheless chooses a career of a barrow-boy out of protest against the ideals of the British establishment. Section 1. Text comprehension questions 1.1. Issues for Discussion 1. What makes one recognize that different kinds of English are spoken inside England? 2. What feature of a regional dialect does Charles Barber consider to be the most important one? 3. How does the administrative division of England correlate with dialectal makeup of the country? Approach it in terms of your theoretical course of English Lexicology, namely, see the problem ‘Regional varieties of the English language’. 4. Is the number of actually existing regional dialects of the English language more numerous than it is apparent to the ordinary speaker? If so, account for this fact. 5. Whom does Charles Barber mean by ‘the untrained ear’ and which type of transference underlies this use? 6. Can an amateur distinguish between the dialects of different towns, villages or those of different streets similarly to a professional in the field of phonetics? 7. Which differences between the regional dialects are the most conspicuous ones and which are more difficult to recognize for the unprofessional speaker according to Charles Barber? 8. What examples does the author provide to illustrate the differences in vocabulary and grammar between regional dialects? 9. What types of English dialects are distinguished according to horizontal and vertical diversification of the English language? 10. How is the notion of a class dialect explained by Charles Barber? 11. Is there a certain correlation between social dialects and the local social structure? 12. How does the author account for the fact that our assessment of a person’s style of speech is simply due to social traditions and associations but not due to the features inherent in the language itself? 13. On what language levels, others than the phonetic one, does the social stratification of the language find its expression? 14. Does the author support the opinion that the speaker higher in the social ladder describes many of the usages of lower strata as ‘ungrammatical’? 15. What interesting coincidence is observed in the vocabulary usage between the representatives of the upper and the lower classes? 16. Why does the author find such descriptions of the style of speech as ‘educated’ and ‘uneducated’ merely euphemisms for class distinctions in speech? 17. Does one’s style of speech depend on education only or on some other factors according to Charles Barber? 18. What example does Charles Barber provide as an exception to the universally recognized correlation between education and class? Section 2. Vocabulary focus 2.1. Stratification of the Scientific Text Vocabulary 1. Pick out words and word-combinations which can be regarded as special linguistic terminology and group them thematically. 2. Define the following terms: dialect, a regional dialect, a social dialect, an intrinsic quality of a language, a distinctive feature. 3. Find the derivational series of words with the root morpheme dialect. 4. Pick out all word-combinations in which the word ‘dialect’ occurs. 5. Select words which can be regarded as general scientific terms and complete the following table taking into consideration their part-of-speech belonging. Some sections may remain blank.
6. Which terminological units of the text can be regarded as consubstantial terms and why? Say which of them function as general scientific terms and which function as special linguistic terms. 7. Select general scientific units in the text and sort them out according to their structure into a) individual lexemes; b) word-combinations; c) predicative polylexemic units. After that complete the table below with the general scientific units taking into account their function in the logical unfolding of the text information.
8. Think of Ukrainian equivalents to the general scientific units from the text. Mind that they should be fully in keeping with the stylistic requirements of the Ukrainian scientific prose. 9. Pick out general scientific verbal word-combinations with the head-words find, see, recognize, appear. What general scientific meaning do they acquire in the humanities text under consideration? 10. Which words of Latin, Greek or French origin can be traced in the text and which stylistic layer do they represent? 11. Find those units of the text which serve as means of quantitative expressivity, among them adjectives in the Comparative and Superlative degrees and emphatic and limiting particles. 12. Comment on the expressive nature of the words to lack, to lump, host used in the ST in question in the word-combinations to lack the power, to lump together, a host of dialects. How does their trite imagery contribute to the expressiveness of the text? What other instances of its manifestation are there in the text? 13. Is the present text illustrative in terms of subjective modal evaluation as another form expressivity can take in a ST? If so, provide examples. 14. Find those emotive adjectives which describe different kinds of speech in the text under study and comment on their contribution to the expressivity of this piece of scientific writing. Look for more words with inherent expressive-evaluative connotations in the present text.
2.2. Vocabulary Practice WORD-BUILDING 1. Select derivatives from the text for the words which follow and indicate their part-of- speech belonging. Comment on the word-building means used. Example: dialect dialectologist
2. Complete the table filling in part-of-speech sections. Some sections may remain blank.
3. Fill each space in the sentences below using appropriate derivatives of the words in capitals in the correct form.
POLYSEMY 1. For sentences 1 – 3 think of one word only which can be used appropriately in all three sentences. Example: a. They say the new minister is a lovely person and very ………….. to talk to. b. My neighbours have not had a very ………….. life, but they always seem cheerful. c. It’s …………. enough to see why the town is popular with tourists. Key: EASY 1. а. Finger spelling is a method of communicating with the hands which is closely linked to sign ……………... b. His companion rounded on him with a torrent of abusive ………….. c. Procedural ……………….. is used in the traditional programming that is based on algorithms or a logical step-by-step process for solving a problem. 2. a. A rough grouping of words we understand when we hear them encompass our ‘passive’ …………... b. Knowledge of the ……………… of natural science is far from being his prominent feature. c. The appearance of this word in the German ………….. correlates with the times of the Second World War. 3. a. ………… in some cultures has become the basis of a written language, often one that differs in its vocabulary, syntax and phonetics from its associated spoken one, a situation called diglossia. b. The budget …………… was a long-winded way of sending the right messages to Labour’s core voters. c. He is a Mancunian by his ………….. SYNONYMSAND REGISTER 1. Select synonymic words from the box matching the words below.
2. Fill the gaps with the words from the text that have the same meaning as the words in brackets. 1. The sample of people questioned was drawn from the university's student register and … by age and gender. (stratified) 2. It is … to all of us that to reduce pollution we must use cars less. (clear) 3. Sportsmen … be nervous before the performances. (are sure to) 4. Your judgments … with objective facts. (are hardly connected) 5. Maths is an … part of the school curriculum. (inherent) 3. Provide more formal equivalents to the following expressions. a) to lack the power to analyse – ……………………………………………… b) the untrained ear – ………………………………………………………….. c) to lump together – ………………………………………………. ………… d) a host of dialects – ………………………………………………. ………… e) to go through different parts of the educational machine – ………………… d) to find the subject a trifle indelicate – ………………………… f) to end up in smth. – ……………………………………………….………. 4. Replace the phrases in bold with one of the words or word combinations from the box in the correct form.
1. Most fake diamonds might look real to someone without the skill. 2. The new director faced a whole array of problems with the staff. 3. His upper-class accent annoyed her. 4. All the children are grouped together in one class, regardless of their ability. 5. A professional dialectologist is able to notice minute distinctions in the speech of representatives of different dialects. 6. When I first went to China, it seemed completely strange to me. 7. The course-books are differentiated according to the difficulty of the language. Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition 1. Present the text taking into account the branch of knowledge it belongs to, the source it comes from, its title and the author. 2. Which type of information is the text in question characterized by? 3. Formulate the main concern of the text. 4. Say into how many conceptual paragraphs the factual information of the text falls. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each conceptual paragraph. 5. Find facts pertaining to the administrative division of England and comment on the background information underlying them and thus relevant in terms of the category of presupposition. 6. Account for the author’s choice of the representatives of the two different social classes – an Eton boy and a Cockney boy – to illustrate his statement that the ordinary speaker’s perception of the style of speech is rather due to associations than to the intrinsic qualities of the language itself? 7. Comment on the background information of cultural and philological significance in respect to the following names mentioned in the text: Professor Higgins, J.B. Priestly and his Yorkshire characters and Jimmy Porter. 3.2. The Category of Cohesion 1. What words can be treated as the key-words supporting the logico-semantic wholeness of the text? Explain your choice. In what way does their recurrence contribute to the integrity of the text? 2. Find words and word-combinations in the text the key-word “dialect” is synonymically related to. Are they synonyms proper or contextual synonyms? 3. Pick out word-combinations with the key-word “dialect” and explain how they make for the wholeness and integrity of the text. 4. What terminological lexemes and word-combinations denoting different levels of language structure reinforce the cohesive potential of the key-word “language”? 5. Pick out substantive word-combinations supporting the cohesive capacity of the key-word “speech”. 6. Distinguish thematic groups of words and word-combinations united by the common notions of: - geographical names and areas; - speakers; - professions. 7. Find lexical units pertaining to the lexico-semantic groups of: a) nouns denoting different aspects and notions of linguistics; b) nouns denoting educational establishments; c) nouns denoting factors and criteria determining social stratification; d) adjectives denoting social layers; e) adjectives characterizing the style of speech. 8. Identify synonyms proper and contextual synonyms and comment on their role in the lexical cohesion of the text. 9. Find in the text antonyms proper or contextual ones to the following words: posh, educated, top, higher, east, north. Mention other instances of antonyms in the text, if there are any. How does antonymy reinforce the lexical cohesion of the text? 10. Which way of word-building can be regarded as the most productive one in the text? Select derivational pairs and series of words illustrating the role of word-building means in the lexical cohesion of the text. Specially comment on the way affixation contributes to the cohesive potential of the key-words. What other word-building means making for its logico-semantic wholeness are observed in the text? 11. Select coheremes of immediate linear joining which serve: - to express similarity - to oppose and contrast ideas - to add information - to generalize information - to specify facts - to provide reasons List other coheremes of immediate linear joining, if there are any. 12. In the examples below distinguish the deictic coheremes which in a compressed form substitute for the information mentioned above. Find the antecedents they correlate with: This can often be seen …, Such differences are often marked by …, Besides being thus diversified ….Pick out other cases of deictic coheremes of this kind and comment on the way they make for the logico-semantic unity of the text. 13. Which antecedents do the following deictic coheremes refer to in the text: question, topic, subject, thing? Find other nouns of broad semantics and point out the antecedents they substitute for. Explain how they foster the logico-semantic integrity of the humanities text in question. Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the humanities writing “English Dialects” by Ch. Barber.
Unit 2. Superluminous Laser Pulse in an Active MediumD. L. Fisher and T. Tajima Physics Department, University of Texas, Austin Received 24 May 1993 Physical conditions are obtained to make the propagation velocity of a laser pulse and thus the phase velocity of the excited wake be at any desired value, including that equal to or greater than the speed of light. The provision of an active-plasma laser medium with an appropriately shaped pulse allows not only replenishment of laser energy loss to the wake field but also acceleration of the group velocity of photons. A stationary solitary solution in the accelerated frame is obtained from our model equations and simulations thereof for the laser, plasma, and atoms. PACS numbers: 52.40.Db, 42.50.Rh
We propose the use of an active laser 1) medium to control the envelope propagation velocity of a laser pulse in a plasma2) to any design velocity Ʋenv, including the speed of light or greater. Such a pulse is said to be superluminous. It is possible with appropriate construction of the laser pulse profile in the direction of propagation to "accelerate" the group velocity of that pulse. This is related to the process of self-induced transparency [1] and to the triple soliton solutions already obtained for a (nonactive) plasma system [2, 3]. Since the pulse can travel at the design speed with no change in its structure, the phase velocity of the accelerating field will also be at the design speed in an active-plasma medium. The preexcited active medium plays the role of a nonlinear amplifier, amplifying the front of the laser pulse and absorbing energy at the rear of the pulse in such a manner as to maintain its shape but at the same time increase the overall pulse speed. This apparent acceleration of the group velocity even beyond the speed of light does not violate the special theory of relativity as energy and information flow in fact do not exceed с. The leading edge of the pulse which is necessary for acceleration already contains information about the pulse and this information is extracted through the nonlinear amplification process. If the pulse is of finite length, the peak will travel only to the edge of the pulse (the edge travels with the pulse group velocity) with the design velocity and with the group velocity thereafter. The process of effective acceleration of the photon group velocity and the recovery of laser energy loss by the active medium has applications in photonics and telecommunications as well as to wake-field accelerators. With application to acceleration [4]the increase of the phase velocity of the wake field could help overcome slippage between the particle bunch and accelerating field as the particle bunch outruns the accelerating field due to the difference between the phase velocity of the field and the particle velocity Ʋ ≈ с. Second, since the energy used to induce the wake comes from the active medium and not from the laser pulse, pump depletion [5] may be eliminated. The energy to induce the wake field originally comes from the active medium, leaving the structure of the pulse unchanged with the final energy density of the material reduced by the amount necessary to induce the wake field. Third, using a properly shaped active medium channel in the transverse direction, we should be able to replenish energy loss to diffraction and refraction, thereby optically guiding and effectively focusing the laser pulse. Three conditions must be met to accelerate the pulse envelope to the design speed Ʋenv and retain a stationary structure. First is the resonance condition: The laser photon energy should approximately match that of the transition energy in the active medium. Here we consider the case of exact resonance, but small detuning might be both possible and desirable to minimize unwanted non-linear optical effects. Second the laser pulse duration must match the time scale of energy exchange between the active medium and laser pulse (reciprocal of the average Rabi frequency). Third a certain energy density in the active medium is necessary for the acceleration of the pulse envelope. Starting with the wave equation where A is the vector potential of the laser pulse, ⱷ is the potential for the plasma electric field, and the transverse component of polarization vector P contains only the active material dependent (atomic) response. None of the plasma effects are included in P; they enter through ⱷ and J. The index of refraction ŋ is for the nonactive portion of the material response (atomic). The form of the fields in one dimension for a laser of frequency ⱷ and wave number k0 are where y = 1/V 1 - (v/c)2, U(z,t) and V(z,t) are the slowly varying real (electric dipole dispersion) and imaginary (absorption) components of the material polarization vector [1], and y(z,f) and a(z,t) are the slowly varying phase and envelope of the laser pulse.
References: [1] S.L. McCall and E. L. Hahn, Phys. Rev. 183, 457 (1969). [2] K. Mima et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 1421 (1986). [3] C. McKinstrie and D.Dubois, Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 2022 (1986). [4] T.Tajima and J.M.Dawson, Phys. Rev. Lett 43, 267 (1979). [5] W.Horton and T.Tajima, Phys. Rev. A.34, 4110 (1986). Explanatory Notes 1) laser (acronym from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) – a device for the creation, amplification, and transmission of a narrow, intense beam of coherent light. 2) plasma – a state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.
Section 1. Text comprehension questions1.1. Issues for Discussion 1. What is proposed as a means of controlling the envelope propagation velocity of a laser pulse in a plasma? 2. Characterise a superluminous pulse as viewed by the authors of the article. 3. Under what conditions does the acceleration of the group velocity of a superluminous laser pulse become possible? 4. What scientific theories serve as the basis of the hypothesis suggested? 5. What physical property of the pulse predetermines the fact that the phase velocity of the accelerating field will be at the design speed in an active-plasma medium? 6. What is the role of the preexcited active medium in increasing the overall pulse speed and which components of the pulse structure are affected by it? 7. Why is the acceleration of the group velocity said not to violate the theory of relativity? 8. Which element of the pulse structure already contains information about the pulse and in what way is this information extracted? 9. Under what physical condition will the peak of the pulse travel to the edge of the pulse? 10. What are the three main spheres of application of the process of effective acceleration of the photon group velocity and the recovery of laser energy loss by the active medium? Comment on each of them. 11. Enumerate and disclose the essence of the three conditions to be met to accelerate the pulse envelope to the design speed and retain a stationary structure.
Section 2. Vocabulary focus2.1. Stratification of the Scientific Text Vocabulary 1. Identify special physical terms expressed by individual lexemes and sort them out according to their part-of-speech belonging. Classify them thematically into the groups of terms: a) denoting and characterizing physical processes and notions; b) denoting physical magnitudes, states and parametres; c) mathematical notions; d) others. 2. What word-building means underlie the formation of special terminological lexemes in the text? 3. Provide examples of derivational series of words comprising different parts of speech with the same root-morpheme. State to which lexical layer they refer. 4. What word-combinations can be regarded as terms of physical science? 5. Select general scientific terms used in the present text. 6. Find instances of consubstantial terms and provide your explanations why you refer them to this group of terms. 7. What individual lexemes represent the general scientific layer and what communicative-pragmatic functions do they perform in the present text? 8. Identify general scientific units with the structure of a word-combination and sort them out according to their structure. 9. Are there any general scientific units in the text expressed by predicative segments? If so, comment on their functions in the present text. 10. Comment on the meanings of the verbs come, say, obtain and meet in general literary language and compare them with the general scientific meanings they acquire in the text. You may make use of any explanatory dictionary and dictionaries of scientific terminology, e.g. Longman Dictionary of Scientific Usage by A. Godman and E.M.F. Payne. 11. What means of quantitative expressivity is the present text characterised by? Comment on the instances of their use. 12. Pick out those special terms and general scientific units whose meanings are based on metaphorical transference. Does their imagery increase the expressivity of the present text?
2.2. Vocabulary Practice WORD-BUILDING 1. Select derivatives from the text for the words which follow and indicate their part-of- speech belonging. Comment on the word-building means used.
2. Fill each space in the sentences below using appropriate derivatives of the words in capitals in the correct form.
POLYSEMY 1. For sentences 1 – 5 think of one word only which can be used appropriately in all three sentences. 1.a. The ……… limit in urban areas is usually 30 or 40 mph. b. In addition to a dramatic increase in accuracy, this scheme also offers significant advantages in computational ………, since the calculation only requires a pair of summations. c. The ……… of light is 300 million metres per second. 2. a. They help you talk through your problems but they don't give you any ……. b. The chamber is initially filled with glucose …........ c. The value of X can be obtained from the ……… below. 3. a. As an example, when oil reacts with oxygen, potential ……… is released, since new chemical bonds are formed. The released ……… resulting from this process may be converted directly to electricity with good efficiency. b. The ……… generated by the windmill drives all the drainage pumps. c. I was so tired, I didn't even have the ……… to get out of bed. 4. a. The doctor took my ……… and said it was rather weak. b. The data, normally transmitted electronically, can be changed into ………s of light. c. The situation changes daily, so you've got to keep your finger on the ……... 5.a. A black star ………s all matter. b. Plants ……… carbon dioxide. c. Her capacity to ……… information is amazing. SYNONYMSAND REGISTER 1. Match the words from the text on the right with the synonyms on the left. Some words from the left column may have more than one synonym.
2. Fill the gaps with the words from the text vocabulary which are semantically correlated with the words in brackets. 1. There has been some … in economic growth. (speeding-up) 2. For the whole … of the speech the bored audience fidgeted. (continuance) 3. British and American officials said that would… the terms of the Gulf war ceasefire and put the aircraft at risk of being shot down by the allies. (disregard) 4. He says that there needs to be more … in the way the government operates. (clearness) 5. Historically, this place was characterized by the gradual adaptation of the race to its …. (environment) 6. An electron encircling a nucleus is continuously subject to acceleration as its … keeps on changing direction. (speed) 7. This media course was set up as the school's … to being chosen like school A to participate in the Gulbenkian Research Project. (reaction) 8. To widen a car eighteen millimeters is equivalent to widening goal posts by half a foot; to … the rules is always to seek an advantage. (break) 9. The author has come to a(n) … conclusion that, perhaps, clients and dealers are very much the same sort of people. (general) 10. The government can seek greater efficiency; it can squeeze expenditure across the board; or it can ask hard questions about what the state should be doing, and try to … whole categories of spending. (exclude) USAGE For sentences 1 – 3 think of one general scientific term only which can be used appropriately in all three sentences taken from the abstracts to different scientific monographs. Say which branch of science these sentences refer to. 1. a. The paper at hand is concerned with creating a flexible wavelet … on the three sphere S3 and the rotation group SO(3). b. As a descriptive framework for text, Rhetorical Structure … provides a combination of features that has turned out to be useful in several kinds of discourse studies. c. In this review we revisit the classic definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in light of contemporary research and …. 2. a. Observed changes in community … and composition demonstrate that the invisibility of plant communities may be directly influenced by nutrient availability, independent of physical disturbance. b. Determining the … of text is an essential step in determining the deep meaning of the text. c. A system of Fortran routines for calculating molecular … parameters is the focus of this review. 3. a. The research requires the use of iterative … of fixed points of asymptotically nonexpansive mappings. b. Professor Andersen’s claim rests heavily on his ability to bring out the general principles from the somewhat obscure theory of glossematics and demonstrate their relevance to the … of an adequate overall model of the HCI. c. Physical principles in the … of regular viruses are the key facts about viruses from which all consideration of their structure and functional organization must proceed.
Section 3. Assignments for text analysis in terms of textlinguistic categories3.1. The Categories of Informativity and Presupposition 1. Present the text taking into account the branch of knowledge it belongs to, the source it comes from, the publication date, its title and the authors. 2. Which type of information is the text in question characterized by? 3. Formulate the main concern of the text. 4. Say into how many conceptual paragraphs the factual information of the text falls. Briefly summarize each of them, making up an outline, the items of which serving as key points of each conceptual paragraph. 5. What physical theories and current studies in the field of physics should the specialist reader be aware of to fully comprehend the suggested conjecture? 6. What paralinguistic means of conveying information (both semiotic and graphical ones) are used in the text alongside the verbal ones? How do they add on to the factual information of the scientific text in question? 3.2. The Category of Cohesion 1. Identify the key-words of the text holding together its logico-semantic integrity and account for your choice. 2. What word-combinations with the key-words contribute to the wholeness of the text? 3. What lexico-semantic groups of words are conducive to the lexical cohesion of the text? Which part of speech predominates among such units? 4. Find synonyms proper and contextual synonyms in the text and explain how the use of synonyms makes for the lexical cohesion of the text. 5. How does antonymy (both antonyms proper and the contextual ones) support the lexical cohesion of the present text? 6. What word-building means are productive in the text making for its lexical cohesion? 7. Complete the table with the deictic coheremes of linear joining taking into consideration the function they perform in the logical unfolding of the text information.
8. Select deictic coheremes presented by nouns of broad semantics (process, material, case, etc.) and identify their antecedents pointing out the role of such coheremes in maintaining the lexical cohesion of the text. 9. Pick out the deictic coheremes expressed by pronouns of different types and identify their antecedents. Comment on how deictic coheremes reinforce the logico-semantic wholeness of the scientific text under consideration. Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the scientific writing “Superluminous Laser Pulse in an Active Medium” by D. L. Fisher and T. Tajima.
SUPPLEMENTText 1. LITTLE DORRITby Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870) The passage is an extract from the novel Little Dorrit (1855-1857) by the most popular English novelist of the Victorian era, Charles Dickens. It is a work of satire on the shortcomings of the government and society of the period. In the chapter below much of Dickens’ ire is focused upon a certain Mrs. General, a snobbish, hypocritical and pretentious lady “whose task was to form the minds of the young ladies of distinction”. Mrs. General is inevitably associated with “the cool coach of ceremony” whose pompous and ostentatious behavior was calculated to impress people, and thus win Mrs. General a high reputation in bourgeois society. Chapter II MRS. GENERAL … Mrs. General was the daughter of a clerical dignitary in a cathedral town, where she had led the fashion until she was as near forty-five as a single lady can be. A stiff commissariat officer of sixty, famous as a martinet, had then become enamoured of the gravity with which she drove the proprieties four-in-hand through the cathedral town society, and had solicited to be taken beside her on the box of the cool coach of ceremony to which that team was harnessed. His proposal of marriage being accepted by the lady, the commissary took his seat behind the proprieties with great decorum, and Mrs. General drove until the commissary died. In the course of their united journey they ran over several people who came in the way of the proprieties; but always in a high style, and with composure. The commissary having been buried with all the decorations suitable to the service (the whole team of proprieties were harnessed to his hearse, and they all had feathers and black velvet housings, with his coat of arms in the corner), Mrs. General began to inquire what quantity of dust and ashes was deposited at the bankers’. It then transpired that the commissary had so far stolen a march on Mrs. General as to have bought himself an annuity some years before his marriage, and to have reserved that circumstance, in mentioning, at the period of his proposal, that his income was derived from the interest of his money. Mrs. General consequently found her means so much diminished that, but for the perfect regulation of her mind, she might have felt disposed to question the accuracy of that portion of the late service which had declared that the commissary could take nothing away with him. In this state of affairs it occurred to Mrs. General that she might “form the mind”, and eke the manners of some young lady of distinction. Or, that she might harness the proprieties to the carriage of some rich young heiress or widow, and become at once the driver and guard of such vehicle through the social mazes… … In person, Mrs. General, including her skirts, which had much to do with it, was of a dignified and imposing appearance: ample, rusting, gravely voluminous; always upright behind the proprieties. She might have been taken – had been taken – to the top of the Alps and the bottom of Herculaneum, without disarranging a fold in her dress, or displacing a pin. If her countenance and hair had rather a floury appearance, as though from living in some transcendently genteel mill, it was rather because she was a chalky creation altogether, than because she mended her complexion with violet powder, or had turned grey. If her eyes had no expression, it was probably because they had nothing to express. If she had few wrinkles, it was because her mind had never traced its name or any other inscription on her face. A cool, waxy, blown-out woman, who had never lighted well. Mrs. General had no opinions. Her way of forming a mind was to prevent it from forming opinions. She had a little circular set of mental grooves or rails on which she started little trains of other people’s opinions, which never overtook one another, and never got anywhere. Even her propriety could not dispute that there was impropriety in the world; but Mrs. General’s way of getting rid of it was to put it out of sight, and make believe that there was no such thing. This was another of her ways of forming a mind – to cram all articles of difficulty into cupboards, lock them up, and say they had no existence. It was the easiest way, and beyond all comparison, the properest. Mrs. General was not to be told of anything shocking. Accidents, miseries, and offences, were never to be mentioned before her. Passion was to go to sleep in the presence of Mrs. General, and blood was to change to milk and water. The little that was left in the world, when all these deductions were made, it was Mrs. General’s province to varnish. In that formation process of hers she dipped the smallest of brushes into the largest of pots, and varnished the surface of every object that came under consideration. The more cracked it was, the more Mrs. General varnished it. There was varnish in Mrs. General’s voice, varnish in Mrs. General’s touch, an atmosphere of varnish round Mrs. General’s figure. Mrs. General’s dreams ought to have been varnished – if she had any – lying asleep in the arms of the good St. Bernard, with the feathery snow falling on his housetop. ASSIGNMENTS 1. Read the belles-lettres writing above, formulate its main concern and summarize its factual information. 2. Find the facts of socio-historic significance commenting on the background information underlying them. 3. Formulate the conceptual information of the present text. Segment it into conceptual cores and identify those stylistic devices which explicate the author’s artistic message in each particular case. 4. Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of сhapter II “Mrs. General” from the novel “Little Dorrit” by Ch. Dickens.
Text 2. English will be spoken but not as the British know it
As English sweeps the world, small languages will disappear. Will Hutton warns that British English could be next English will be spoken but not as the British know it
Each new language you learn means you have acquired another soul, according to an east European proverb. You don’t have to be a romantic to believe that your language, much more than your currency, defines a national community and culture. English speakers are fortunate – our language is becoming the universal form of linguistic exchange. But every other language is at the receiving end of English’s triumph, raising all manner of fundamental fears. It is one of the reasons that globalisation is regarded with increasing suspicion; it implies the slow death of the cultures that are embodied in languages other than English. The disappearance of the world’s small languages is now happening at a rapid pace. David Crystal, honorary Professor of Linguistics at the University of Bangor, says that half the world’s currently spoken 6,000 languages will have died out over the next century. But it is not just 3,000 means of technically talking to each other that will have disappeared; 3,000 means of understanding the world will have died as well. Wittgenstein is the most famous exponent of the notion that the structure of language is the essence of being. “The world is all that is the case” was the first of his famous propositions in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, but the last was “The limits of my world are the limits of my language”; language, in other words, is all. It is not merely the key to meaning; it defines our very humanity. But the issue is not only the future of small languages; larger languages are under pressure too. Wittgenstein would have had understood the growing tensions over the use of language in the European Union, and which is going to become more acute if the EU expands to 27 countries. Translation between the 11 languages of the EU consumes a third of the commission’s administrative budget, and every country assuming the presidency of Europe’s Council of Ministers has to decide how much money it will spend on translation. It has fallen to Finland, during the current presidency, to stir up the linguistic hornet’s nest. It has elected not to translate German, so that for four months there has been a running battle between the Germans and Austrians, outraged that their language should be relegated to the same standing as Greek or, worse, Catalan. German may be spoken by 100 millions members of the EU, but it is not one of the EU’s official languages. But the Germans themselves are not their language’s most ardent defenders. “Schröder go home” shouted the placards at a union demonstration in Berlin recently. Equally, the language of most of Germany’s top companies is English. Daimler-Benz, having taken over Chrysler, speak English at board and senior management level; same story at Deutsche Bank, Siemens and BMW. The European Central-Bank, based in Frankfurt, has given up completely; its working language is English. English words and sentences pop up all over Germany, inserting English values into the bedrock of Germanness. The Germans are on the way to becoming like the Dutch, Scandinavians and Swiss; English is, in effect, their second language, in which a growing number of citizens are effectively bilingual. You cannot pursue an international career without English or even understand the lyrics of most popular music; the German top 20 always contains songs in English. It is no accident that one of Britain’s booming industries is English teaching; the UK earns more than $3 by a year teaching English to 600,000 students annually. The open question is whether the increasing role of English in Europe portends it driving out the native languages. Crystal argues that bilingualism tends to be a phase before the dominant language, even in such countries as Denmark or Sweden, it will be because the political, economic and social elite will have taken a deliberate decision to drop their native language and adopt English. The more probable outcome is that Europe’s will continue to speak their own language together with English, rather as the Boers in South Africa speak both Afrikaans and English. The dropping of your own language is not something you do voluntarily; it contains too much meaning and culture for that. It is only if your language is overwhelmed by the size and power of others that it is extinguished because the dominant economic and political forces in the culture have not the power to sustain their own language before the challenge; the 3,000 languages that Crystal predicts will disappear will be the languages of tiny native tribes and groupings. So the likelihood is that the large, native, non-English national languages in the EU will survive, at the same time as most Europeans acquire English as a second language. In the process, Europe will have achieved a vital goal – the common language it needs to begin the establishment of a genuine common European economic and political culture. The British look on this process with benevolent indulgence; it is our language, after all, that is becoming the new common second language. The more dangerous threat we do not appreciate is that British English is under the same threat as German and French; the dynamism of English comes from the United States. American English contains ideas and values that are as foreign to us as English is to German and French, but which are immediately transparent when French and German speakers use English and makes them so hawklike about the consequences. The British don’t have that advantage. While other Europeans may manage to sustain their cultures and gain access to a new common language, we risk simply becoming the melting-pot. Unless we are as attentive as other Europeans to our culture; to speak English as our native tongue could be as much a curse as an advantage. American English contains ideas and values that are as foreign to us as English is to German or French
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Read the newspaper publication above, analyze its linguo-stylistic peculiarities and define the genre it belongs to. 2. Formulate the main concern of the text and summarize its factual information. 3. Find in the text the lexical means of cohesion integrating it into a global logico-semantic whole. 4. Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the newspaper text “English will be spoken but not as the British know it”.
Text 3. Metabolites of Pseudomonasinvolved in the biocontrolof plant diseaseDavid N. Dowling and Fergal O’Gara There is increasing commercial and environmental interest in the use of microbebased agents as alternatives to, or in combination with, chemicals for controlling the spread and severity of a range of crop diseases. The identification of specific microbial metabolites that are able to control certain plant diseases has led to the development of strategies for improving the performance and predictability of the microbial strains that produce these metabolites for application in the agricultural industry. This article focuses on antimicrobial metabolites produced by fluorescent pseudomonads, discusses their role in suppressing fungal diseases of important crops and reviews the prospects of genetically manipulating the producer organisms to improve the efficacy of these biocontrol agents. The ability of some soils to suppress plant disease has been well documented. An important example is the development of soils suppressive to Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (Ggt), the causative agent of ‘take-all’ of wheat. Such natural examples of biological control have been attributed to the indigeneous beneficial rhizosphere microflora (see Glossary), especially fluorescent pseudomonads. Numerous mechanisms may account for these biocontrol properties (see Glossary), including the production of inhibitory compounds or metabolites. Microbial metabolites such as siderophores (see Glossary) and secondary metabolites with antimicrobial properties are considered to play a major role in disease suppression (see Table 1). Metabolites with biocontrol properties have been reported from diverse members of the beneficial rhizosphere flora: however, those produced by the fluorescent pseudomonads have received the most attention. This is probably due to the abundance of this diverse group of bacteria and their obvious importance in the rhizosphere, coupled with the relative ease with which they can be genetically manipulated. Fluorescent pseudomonads produce a variety of metabolites, many of which are inhibitory to other microorganisms and some of which are implicated in the biological control of plant pathogens.The identification of a link between a metabolite(s) and the suppression of a particular disease is an on-going goal of many research groups, which the use of recombinant DNA (rDNA) techniques has facilitated. Some of the criteria used to indicate that a particular metabolite has a primary role in biological control are shown below. - Mutants defective in metabolite(s) are unable to show inhibition of the pathogen in the laboratory. - The biocontrol ability of the mutants is reduced in the field. - Complementation of the mutant with wild-type DNA sequences restores biocontrol ability. - The purified metabolite shows fungicidal or antimicrobial properties. - The metabolite may be detected in situ (i.e. in the rhizosphere) when producing strains are present. The ability to fulfil some or all of these points provides good evidence for the involvement of a particular metabolite in biocontrol. A selection of plant diseases controlled by specific metabolites are summarized in Table 1. Role of metabolites in biological control Some of the metabolites implicated in biocontrol appear to be broad-ranging in their inhibitory action. For example, phloroglucinols and phenazines have been shown to inhibit a wide range of fungal pathogens in the laboratory. Siderophores exhibit both fungistatic and bacteriostatic
effects in the laboratory under conditions of low iron. In the field, these iron-chelating compounds are thought to deprive the pathogen of iron, a limiting essential nutrient. Other metabolites are known to have very specific effects and to target particular pathogens; for example, agrocin 84, produced by Agrobacterium radiobacter, is specific for virulent strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. At the molecular level, agrocin 84 (a di-substituted nucleotide) is thought to act by chain termination of DNA synthesis. However, the precise mode of actions of many other metabolites is poorly understood. Effects such as direct killing or pathogen inhibition exhibited by a particular metabolite in the laboratory cannot always be translated directly into biological control in the field, as the conditions experienced in the field are much more complex. However, there are a number of studies demonstrating a direct effect of particular antimicrobial metabolites on pathogen numbers in soil. One such example is the suppression of root pathogens by plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (see Glossary). In another case, the population size of antibiotic-producing Pseudomonas fluorescens 2-79 was shown to correlate positively with a reduction in the number of lesions on wheat roots caused by Ggt. Evidence is accumulating to support the theory that metabolite production has beneficial effects on the ecological competence of the producer strain. Production of these compounds is thought to provide the producing strain with a selective advantage in the highly competitive environment of the plant rhizosphere. This idea has been substantiated by a recent report, which demonstrated that phenazine (Phz) antibiotics contributed to the persistence of the producer strains (P. fluorescens 2-79 and P. aureofaciens 30-84) compared with Phz-deficient mutants in a simulated wheat-rotation microcosm.
Persistence may lead to improved competition and colonization of the producer strain on the plant surface, leading to niche-exclusion of the pathogen. The role of siderophores and other metabolite(s) in biocontrol may not be simply a direct antagonism of the pathogenic fungus, but may also involve more subtle ecological effects. Alternative, more indirect, modes of action could involve stimulation of the plant’s own defence mechanisms by induced systemic acquired resistance or, possibly, by direct uptake and translocation of the metabolite within the plant.
D. N. Dowling and F. O’Gara are at the Department of Microbiology, University College Cork, Ireland. © 1994, Elsevier Science Ltd 0167 – 7799/94/S7.00
ASSIGNMENTS 1. Read the scientific text above and present it taking into account the branch of knowledge it belongs to. 2. Analyze the text in terms of the category of informativity. Comment on how paralinguistic means of conveying information, used in the text alongside the verbal ones, add on to the factual information of the scientific text in question. 3. Comment on the lexical peculiarities of the present scientific text distinguishing the three lexical layers in its vocabulary. 4. Analyze the text in terms of the category of cohesion focusing on the lexical means conducive to the logico-semantic integrity of the scientific writing under consideration. 5. Compose and write a coherent essay summing up your observations on the linguostylistic and textlinguistic peculiarities of the scientific text “Metabolites of Pseudomonas involved in the biocontrol of plant disease”.
LIST OF LITERATURE
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